\ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



■ — -ilf. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




THE BIG ENGINE AT THE WORLD'S FAIR 

2,500 to 3,000 Horse Power . . Quadruple Expansion . . REYNOLD'S CORLISS ENGINE 



Built by THE EDWARD P. ALUS COMPANY, "Reliance Works," Miiwauitee, Wisconsin, U.S.A, 

i could be put on the famous Centennial engine. It 



This Immense engine is twice as powertnl as the next largest engine In Machinery Hall, ana wUl easily arive a load of more than double luo luaiuuLuu ou»u tuuiu u= y^. ^u. »^o .-^v,„^ ^„„.™ ^—■5—, - „„„h«,.= ■«„,, ^it^r .ho 

Westinghouse alternating aynamos having a total lighting capacity of 30,000 sixteen candle power Incanaescent lamps. It is a horizontal quaaruple expansion engine, i.«„ the steam is passed through the four cylinders, one alter tne 
other. Theflrstor high pressure cylinder is 26" diameter; the second or first intei-mediate cylinaer Is 40" diameter; the third or second Intermediate cylinder is 70" diameter; thestrokeis 72". The band wheel is su aiameier. ^ ine 



weight of the complete 
with Keynold's Corliss 



engine i 



he engine is worked condensing, the steam passing J 



I the low pressure cylinde: 



'Keynold's patent air pump and jet condenser di-i 



■ an independent steam cylinder fitted 



'\ 



^STEPHENSON'S 

ILLUSTRATED "" ^ - V 

Practical Test, Examination 

AND 

Ready Reference Book 

FOR 

Stationary 

Locomotive and Marine 

Engineers 

Firemen, Electricians and Machinists 

r 

M TO PROCURE I 

STEAM ENGINEERS LICENSE 

Copyright, 1893, by LAIRD & LEE 
All rights reserved 



Chicago 
LAIRD & LEE, PUBLISHEB: 

1893 /^v ^j 



ppj, SI 1893 



_K^^^ i:o^WASH^^ 



^SjTMZ-" 






Entered, According to Act of Congress, in the Yehb, 

MDCCCXCI, BY WALTER G. KRAFT, IN THB 

Office of the Librarian of Congress 

AT Washington. 



All Rights Reserved. 




^^3^°^'' 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 



The reason for the publication of this book is, 
that having given over 25 years of my life to the 
careful study and practical workings of Boilers, 
Engines, Pumps, Electric lyight Dynamos, Turn- 
ing I^aths, Planers, Shapers and general Ma- 
thine Shop practice, I thought it proper to give 
the rising young mechanics and engineers such 
information in plain simple language so as to be 
easily understood, and save years of time and 
money in gathering the information through 
other sources. 

It is only necessary to say that the longer one 
labors in practical mechanics, the more mature is 
his mind and judgment and the better qualified 
he is to carry on his v^ork. This book is written 
especially for Mechanics who wish to prepare 
themselves in procuring Government, State or 
City I^icense as an Engineer. Hoping the prac- 
tical suggestions throughout the book will enable 
those who look and follow them up to gain a bet- 
ter insight of the work they have to perform, 
I remain. 

Very Respectfully 

Otto Stkphknson. 



(PU(BLISHE^'S J^OTICE. 

We desire to place a copy of this work 
in the hands of every Engineer^ Fire- 
man^ Machinist and Electrician^ and, if 
the neighborhood has no agent through 
whom it can be purchased, we will send 
by mailorexpresSy free of postage, single 
copies to any address on receipt of regu- 
lar retail price ^ %i,oo. 

We at all times desire Agents. 

The terms are liberal, and the agency 
to sell this work in afty field will afford 
a good living to any man or woman of 
intelligence. 

Address all communications to 

LAIRD & LEE 

Publishers, 

263-265 WABASH AVElliTUE 

CHICAOO. 



STEPHENSON'S PRACTICAL TEST, 



-FOR- 



Steam Engineers, Firemen, Elec- 
tricians and Machinists. 



Ques. Name the duties of an Engineer. Ans. The 
duties are to take full change of the boilers and engines 
where ever he may be employed, and see that the steam 
machinery under his charge are kept in No . 1 order. 

Ques. What is required of a man to become a Chief 
Engineer? Ans. He is obliiTed to obtain an Engineers 
license. 

Ques. What experience should a man have in order 
to get his application before a board of Engineers? Ans. 
The experience should be get^erally two years, as a Fire- 
man, Machinist or Engineer, which must be sworn to by 
two good reliable citizens, both living in the city where 
the applicant has been employed. 

Ques . What are steam boilers? how are they, and of 



6 

-what are they made? Aiis. Steam boilers are closed ves« 
sels made of steel, iron or copper plates, the most plates 
in use are ^, yi and j\ inch, and the tensile strength 
ranging from 45,000 to 85,000 lbs. These plates are run 
through a rolling machine and rolled in a circle, then the 
sheets are riveted together at the end with two rows of 
rivets . 

Ques. Why? Ans. Because the strain is greater sidewise 
than endwise, the seams around the boiler are single riv- 
eted because the strain is not so great. 

Ques. Why is the strain greater on the sides than on the 
ends of the boilers? Ans. Because the steam has more 
surface on the sides, and only the heads on the end of 
the boiler to contend with. 

Ques. How is a boiler strengthened? Ans. With 
braces. 

Ques. Name one of the braces, and how are 
they put in? Ans. The boiler is braced by different 
kinds of braces, such as a crow-foot, longitudinal, dome, 
crown-bars, angle braces, etc. The eye is riveted to the 
head of the boiler, which head is generally made of |^ 
inch plate, the other eye is riveted to the side top or dome 
of the boiler, and the braces and eyes are put together 
with bolts, which have a split-key to keep the bolt in its 
place. 

Ques. Name the chief points in the construction of a 
successful and economical boiler? Ans. Proper circula- 
tion facilities constitute one of the chief points in the con- 
struction of a successful and economical boiler. In tu- 
bular boilers, the best practice is to place the tubes in 
vertical rows, (plumb) leaving out what would be the 
centre row. The circulation is up the sides of the boiler 
and down the<:entre. Tubes set zigzag, or to break spaces, 
check the circulation and will not practically give the 
Last lesi^lts. 



Ques. How should braces fit? Ans. They should fit 
tight, otherwise they would be of no use. 

Ques. If braces were found loose, what should be done 
and how could they be tightened? Ans. The braces 
should be taken out, heated in the centre, then upset by 
dropping it endwise on a block of wood until it is the 
proper length. 

Ques. State the strain on a brace? Ans. One fifth o^ 
its own strength. 

Ques. What are stay bolts? Ans. They are long 
screw bolts of one continuous thread. 

*Ques. Wheie are they generally used? and name the 
reasons for using them. Ans. They are generally used 
for keeping two sheets apart in order to leave a water 
space between them, such as a locomotive fire box and 
shell. 

Ques. How should stay bolts be spaced and how far 
apart? Ans . The surface which a stay-bolt has to sup- 
port is represented by the rectangle enclosed between 
four of the bolts . For instance, if the stays are six inches 
apart, the area supported by each would be 6:^6 — 36 sq. 
inches. Multiplying this area by the boiler pressure 
gives the stress upon each stay, and the stays should be 
set at such distances from each other that the stress shall 
not exceed 6,000 pounds per square inch cf cross sectional 
area. To determine this distance multiply the cross sec- 
tional area of the bolt by 6,000; divide by the boiler pres- 
sure, and extract the square root of the quotient. 

Ques. What is meant by the term corrosion? Ans. It 
means the wasting away of the boiler plates by pitting, 
grooving, etc. 

Ques. Name the different corrosions? Ans. There are 
internal and external corrosions. 

Ques. Explain their actions? Ans. The acids and 



minerals in the water liberated by the heat, causes thf in- 
ternal, and the sulphur which is liberated from the coal 
by fire causes the external . 

Ques. How is the water level found when a boiler is 
foaming? Ans . The proper way would be to shut down 
the engine and all valves connected with the boiler,cover 
the fire with ashes and close the damper, then the water 
will quiet down, and the water level easily found. An 
Engineer should know when lighting a fresh fire, never 
to force it, but let it burn slowly so that all the parts will 
expand as near equal as possible; good judgment is 
needed. Test the boilers and steam guages at least once 
a year. 

Ques. Where is a steam guage generally tapped in a 
boiler? Ans. On top of the boiler in the steam drum. It 
must always be tapped into the steam part of the boiler. 

Ques. With what should the steam gauge correspond? 
Ans. The steam gauge should correspond by all means 
with the safety valve. 

Ques . Why is a drain cock put under the steam gauge? 
Ans. To drain the pipe in cold weather. 

Ques. Why are steam gauges used? Ans. They are 
used to indicate the pounds pressure per square inch in 
the boiler. 

Ques. Do steam gauges get out of order? Ans. Yes, 
sometimes. 

Ques. Suppose the steam gauge was wrong what would 
you be governed by? Ans. By the safety valve only. 

Ques. How would you know the safety valve was in 
working order? Ans. By raising the lever two or three 
times carefully to see that the valve worked free and is 
not stuck. 

Ques. Of what use is a safety valve? Ans. It is sup- 
posed to release the boiler from every pressure of steam. 



Ques. What size should the safety valve be in propor- 
tion to the grate surface? Ans. The safety valve should 
be about }i square inch to each square foot of grate sur- 
face, which makes it large enough to relieve the boiler of 
all steam over which the safety valve is set. 

Ques. Which are the better, gauge cocks or glass 
gauges, and which is most preferable? Ans. Gauge 
cocks, because the glass gauge is liable to get choked 
with mud, and not give a true level of the water, the 
glass gauge is a very handy thing; it should be blown 
out four or five times a day, so as to keep it free from 
mud. 

Ques. What should be done in case a glass should 
break? Ans. Close the water valve first to prevent the 
escape of water, then close the steam valve. Insert a 
new glass, then turn on the steam valve first, the water 
valve next, then close the pet cock at the bottom. 

Ques. Which is the better way to clean the inside of a 
glass gauge? Ans. Tie a small piece of waste to a 
strong thin stick, saturate with soap or acetic acid, pass 
down inside of the glass, then open the steam valve and 
blow steam through the glass, and the glass will be clean. 
Never touch the inside of a glass with a wire, as it will 
crack. 

Ques. If a gauge cock, or a small steam pipe in the 
large steam pipe should happen to break off, what should 
be done? Ans. Simply make a hard wood plug and 
drive it in with a heavy hammer, which should be left so 
until the break could be repaired. 

Ques. How is it repaired? Ans. By cutting out the 
old piece, retapping and putting in another pipe or gauge 
cock, whichever the case may be. 

Ques. What side clearance should boilers have between 
the furnace walls and shell at the fire line? They should 



10 

have from tliree to four inches at the fire-line, and from 
seven to ten inches between the shell and the bridge 
wall. The space where the smoke returns to pass through 
the flues should be larger than the area combined of the 
flues or tubes, the bridge wall should pitch toward the 
back. 

Ques. How should stationary boilers rest and what on? 
Ans. The front end of the boiler should rest on the fire 
front, and the back end on a cast iron stand or sad- 
dle to allow equal expansion, the mud drum should al- 
ways hang free under all circumstances. (If the boiler 
has one). 

Ques. In what should Kngineers be careful and exer- 
cise good judgment? Ans. In starting or stopping an 
engine with a high pressure of steam. 

Ques. Why should engineers be careful in starting or stop- 
ping an engine? Ans. Because the vent given the steam in 
starting, and the sudden check in stopping may cause 
such a pressure as to rupture the boiler. 

Ques. How large a hole would it be safe to cut in an 
iron boiler five-sixteenths of an inch thick, without put- 
ting a flange around it? Ans. In practice, a two-inch 
pipe is often put in without giving any trouble, but is 
usually done when the boilers are located at a distance 
from the shop, or the time to put on a stiffening piece can 
not be spared. The stiffening piece should always be 
put on when possible, and it can be made thicker than 
the shell, and therefore giving a better holding surface to 
the pipe and it also leaves a cavity or space around the pipe, 
which, when the pipe is used as a blow-off, allows deposits 
to settle into it, and find their way out when the valve is 
open. There is also in this case, less danger of the end of 
the pipe extending through the shell and ^eventing the 
mud from entering the pipe^ 



11 

Ques. What else should engineers look after? Ans. 
Kngineers should see that the dratt is not choked by ash- 
es under the boiler back of the bridge walls, and that the 
outside of the boilex and inside of the flues are kept clean 
from soot, then there will be no trouble in keeping up 
steam. 

Ques. How are the flues or tubes of a steam boiler kept 
clean? Ans. By either blowing steam through them or 
using a flue brush . 




Ques. How are flues or tubes cleaned by steam? Ans. 
By having a hose attached to the front end leading from 
the steam drum, so that the flues or tubes can be blown out 
from the front end. (Cleaning by the brush is the better 
and more popular way.) 

Ques. How often should the tubes or flues be cleaned? 
Ans. Once a day, in the afternoon, sometimes in the 
morning after raising steam> according to the coal used. 

Ques. Name the different strains of a boiler? Ans. To 
the flues or tubes it has a crushing strain, to the shell a 
tearing strain . 

Ques. What mainly causes boiler explosions? Ans. 
There are various causes, such as low water, over-press- 
ure of steam, bad safety valve, foaming boilers and burnt 
sheets. 

Ques. Why would foaming cause an explosion? Ans, 



12 

It generally raises the water from the heated sheets. The 
sheets become hot; and the water falling back on^them 
they crack, and sometimes cause an explosion. A blis- 
tered sheet or a scaly boiler will also cause an explosion, 
by allowing the sheets to become burnt and weakened; 
also an untrue steam gauge or bad safety valve is very 
dangerous. 

Ques, Name the worst explosions? Ans. The worst 
explosion known, is caused by high steam pressure. 

Ques. How are boilers tested for blistered, cracked or 
rotten sheets? Ans. By the hammer. 

Ques. How is it done? Ans. By taking a small ham- 
mer and going inside and outside of the boiler and sound- 
ing it. 

Ques. Explain how you would know by the sound? 
Ans. By the different sounds; if the sheets rings and 
sounds solid, they are all right; but if they sound dead, 
hollow or blunt, they should be condemned. 

Ques. Should the iron be struck hard? Ans. Yes, 
pretty hard. 

Ques. Ts it proper to have a boiler insured? Ans. 
Yes as insurance is generally accompanied by the ham- 
mer test and intelligent inspection, which guarantees 
security to the engineer or owner. 

Do not reject the advice or suggestions of intelligent 
boiler inspectors, as their experience enables them to 
discriminate in cases which never come under the obser- 
vation of men who do not follow inspection as a bus- 
iness, 

Ques. Are boilers injured by the hydraulic test. Ans. 
Yes, if tested by an inexperienced person. 

Never use steam pressure under any circumstances for 
testing purposes. 

Ques. If a patch is to be put on a boiler what kind 



13 

would you put on? Ans. A hard patch; it is reliable 
and safe. 

Ones. Why not put on a soft patch? Ans. Because 
they are not reliable and are dangerous. 

Ones. What is a hard patch? Ans. A hard patch is 
a patch where the piece is cut out of the boiler and rivet 
holes are drilled or punched through, then the patch is 
riveted on, chipped, caulked and made water and steam 
tight. 

Oues. What is a soft patch? Ans. A soft patch is 
put over the plate that needs patching, and put on with 
^ or ^ inch countersunk screw bolts, with a mixture of 
red lead and iron borings between the patch and the 
boiler plate; the piece of sheet in the boiler is not cut out 
for a soft patch as for a hard patch, consequently the soft 
patch is burnt. 

Ques. Which are the better, drilled or punched holes? 
Ans. Drilled holes . 

Ques. Why are the drilled holes better? Ans. Be- 
cause the fiber of the iron is not disturbed as when the 
holes are punched; in drilling, the iron is cut out regular; 
in punching, it is forced out at once . 

Ques. Name the proper rivets for certain sized sheets, 
and how far apart? Ans. The rivets should be ^ to 
^ inch diameter, and from 2 to 2X inches apart. 

Ques. What would you do the first thing in the 
morning on entering the boiler-room? Ans. See how 
much water there is in the boiler, by trying the gauge 
cocks, then open the glass gauge valves, and start the 
fire to raise steam, 

Ques. Why do you try the gauge cocks, and not trust 
to the glass gauge? Ans. Because the water pipe con- 
necting the glass gauge with the boiler is liable to choke 
lip with mud, therefore the glass would not show a true 



14 

level of water. The glass gauge should be blown out eight 
or ten times a day, to insure safety, but never depend on 
the glass gauge alone. 

Ques. If too much water was pumped in the boiler 
during the day, what should be done? Ans. Open the 
blow off valve and let out the water to.the second gauge. 
An engineer should be very careful when blowing out 
water when there is a hot fire in the boiler furnace, as 
the water leaves very fast, and may blow out too much; 
good judgment should be used. 

Ques. How is a two-flue boil^ cleaned? Ans. First 
see that there is no fire under the boiler, then let out all 
the water through the blow-off valve, take out the man, 
hand, and mud-drum plates; then take a short-handle 
broom, a candle or torch, a small hand-pick, a scraper 
made out of an old file flattened on the end and bent to 
suit, also a half-inch square iron twisted link chain 
about three feet long, with a ring at each end to answer 
for a handle; place the chain around the flue and work 
the chain to get the scale off the bottom of the flues; use 
the pick and scraper to pick and scrape off all that can 
be seen on top of the flues and the bottom and sides of 
the shell; then wash out into the mud-drum; clean out 
and put in the mud-drum and hand-hole plates; fill up 
to top of flues; then put in the man-hole plate, and fill 
up to the second gauge ready for raising steam. 

Ques. Could a boiler not be blown out? Ans. Yes, 

hut not practically. 

Ques. How much pressure would you allow? Ans . 
About 15 or 30 pounds. 

Ques. Why not more pressure? Because the heat 
would be so great that the expansion and contraction 
between the boiler and furnace would not be equal; viz, 
the boiler seams would leak and the boiler injured. The 
practical way is no steam pressure . 



16 

Ques. What benefit is gained by letting the water 
stay in the boiler until ready to clean it out? Ans. The 
mud is kept soft and the scale is not caked to the shell 
or tubes; also, the seams of the boiler are not injured by 
unequal expansion and contraction. 

Ques. How should man and hand-hold plates be 
taken out and put in? Ans. They should be marked 
with a chisel at the top, also the boiler at man- hole and 
hand-hole, whichever it might be, and they should be 
put in the same way they came out. 

Ques. How would you gasket the man-hole or hand- 
hole plates of a boiler? 'Ans. With pure lead rings; 
some use sheet rubber, etc . 

Ques . Why are man-hole and hand-hole plates made 
oval instead of round? Ans. The practical reason is, ii 
the holes were round the plates could not be taken out or 
put in, also a man could not easily enter the boiler 
through the man-hole. 

Ques. When filling a boiler with cold water, and 
raising steam, what should be looked to? Ans. See that 
a valve is left open above the water. 

Ques. Why should a valve be left open? Ans. Be- 
cause boilers fill easier and quicker, and in raising steam 
the cold air is let out and allows equal expansion, as cold 
air does not allow equal expansion. 

Ques. How is a boiler set? Ans. By leveling across 
and along the flues or tubes, allowing the end of the 
boiler furthest from the gauge cocks yi. inch lower for 
every eight feet in length. 

Ques. Why is it lower? Ans. Because when there is 
water in the gauge cocks, there will surely be water a* 
the other end of the boiler. 

Ques. How many gauge cocks has a boiler? Ans 
Generally three. 



16 

Qnes. Where is the first or lower gau>ye? Ans. Two 
inches above the flues, and the rest two inches apart. 

Ques. Where is the waterline? Ans. First gauge. 

Ques. Where should water be in the boiler when run- 
ning? Ans. Second gauge. 

Ques. What should be done preparatory to shutting 
down for the noon hour? Ans. Slacken the draft, and 
let the steam run down, say 15 lbs or so, also let the 
water run down to below 2d gauge and when the engine 
has stopped put the feed on and clear the fires. 

Ques. What other duties devolve on the engineer at 
this time? Ans. He should examine all the journals and 
moving parts, refill the oil cups, etc. 

Ques. Where should water be carried v^hen shutting 
down at night? Ans. At the third gauge and close gauge 
glass cocks. 

Ques. Why carry water so high and close glass gauge 
cocks? Ans. To allow for evaporation and leakage and 
keep water in the boiler in case gla.ss would break. 

Ques. Where is the fire line of a boiler? Ans. ^ of 
an inch below first gauge. 

Ques. When you open a boiler and look in, where do 
the scales lay thickest? Ans. Over the fire-plates. (The 
second sheet generally.) 

Ques. What causes that? Ans. The circulation and 
heat is greatest there. 

Ques. Of what use is a steam drum? Ans. To have 
more dryer steam in volume. 

Ques. How should the circulation and feed be? Ans. 
The circulation and feed should be continual. 

Ques. Why so? Ans. Because boilers are known to 
have exploded immediately on the opening of the steam 
valve to start the engine, after the circulation in the 
boiler and the engine had been standing still for a short 
time. 



17 

Qaes. Kxplain the cause of it. Ans. It is caused by 
the plates next to the fire box being overheated, and as 
soon as the valve is opened the pressure is lessened, and 
the water on the overTieated sheets flash into steam and 

if the boiler is not strong enough, a terrific explosion is 
the result. 

Ques. If the gauge cocks were tried and there was no 
water in sight what should be done? Ans. Cover the fire 
with wet ashes, pull the fire out, then raise the flue caps 
and let the boiler cool down. 

Ones. Why are wet ashes thrown over the fire before 
pulling the fire out? Ans. To lessen the heat. If the 
fire was stirred up without throwing wet ashes over it, it 
would create more heat and very Hkely burn the plates. 

Ques. What should be examined in the boiler every 
cleaning out day? Ans. The braces in the boiler should 
be examined to see if they are loose, also the sheets, 
flues, heads and seams, to see if they are cracked or 
leaking; if they are not attended to, they may cause ser- 
ious trouble and loss of life. 

Ques. What should engineers look after in and about 
the engine and boiler room?> Ans. They should see that 
everything about the engine or boiler room is clean and 
all the tools are in their proper places. Also see that all 
valves or cocks do not leak, if so they should be ground 
in with emery and oil until a seat or true bearing is 
found. Ground glass is good for grinding brass valves. 

Ques. When should the boiler seams be looked after 
and caulked? Ans. The boiler seams should be looked 
after when the boiler is hot, and filled with water, to find 
the leaks, and the caulking should be done when the 
boiler is cold and empty as the jarring while caulking 
would have a tendency to spring a leak somewhere else, 
if the boiler was under pressure. ^^ 



18 

Ques. Is pressure and weight the same? Ans. No. 

Ques. Why? Ans. Because pressure forces in every 
direction, while weight presses only down. 

Ques. Which is best, the riveted or the lap-welded 
flues? Ans. The lap-welded flues, as they are a true cir- 
cle and not so easily collapsed as the riveted flues, which 
are not a true circle. 

Ques. What is meant by foaming? Ans. Foam- 
ing is the water and steam being mixed together. 

Ques. State the general causes of foaming? Ans. Dirty 
greasy, oil}^ and soapy water; salt water forced into fresh 
water, also too much water and not enough steam room 
will cause foaming. 

Ques. What is meant by priming? Ans. Priming 
is the lifting of water with steam, such as opening a valve 
suddenly, and drawing the water from the boiler to the 
ylinder of the engine. 

Ques . What should be done in that case? Ans. Close 
the throttle valve and leave it closed for a few minutes, 
then open the valve slowly; that will generally remedy 
it. Sometimes priming is caused by too much water and 
not enough steam room; in that case less water is car- 
ried. 

Ques. Suppose there was a high pressure of steam in 
the boiler and the water was out of sight, would it be 
safe to raise the safety valve to let off the pressure? Ans. 
No, under no circumstances. 

Ques. Why not? Ans, Because it would cause the 
water to rise, and when the valve closed the water would 

drop back on the heated parts and be liable to explode 
the boiler. 

Ques. Suppose the boiler was too small to keep up the 
required amount of steam, would it be practical to weigh 
down the safety valve to carry a higher pressure? Ans. 
No, under no circumstances. 



19 

Ques. Why not? Ans. Because it would show care- 
lessness and a violation of the laws. 

Ques. Is there any mystery about boiler explosions? 
Ans. No, they are simply caused by carelessness. No 
man has the right to endanger the lives and property of 
others when he knows that he is incompetent to perform 
the duty required of him as an engineer, whether licen- 
sed or otherwise. 

Ques. How much space should there be between the 
tubes of a steam boiler? Ans. One-half the diameter of 
the tube itself 

Ques. Name the principal valve on a steam boiler? 
Ans. The safety valve, by all means. 

Ques. Where should the lower gauge cock be placed 
in upright boilers, any size? Ans, One-third the distance 
from the lop, between the two flue sheets. 

Ques. How long a time is it cgnsidered safe to leave 
the engine or boiler room alone without attention? Ans. 
Under no circumstances should the engine or boiler room 
be left alone. 

Ques. Why not, when everything is in working order? 
Ans. Because no man can tell at what moment an acci- 
dent might occur, which if neglected might cause a ser- 
ious loss of life and property. 

Ques. State the boiling point of water? Ans. It is 212 
degrees of heat. 

Ques. At what point does water evaporate into steam? 
Ans. It evaporates at 213 degress. (Fahrenheit.) 



PUMPS. 

Ques. Name the different pumps for feeding boilers? 
Ans. There are many kinds, but we consider only single 



20 

action, Aouble action and duplex pumps for feeding boil- 
ers and general use. CSee Illustration. ) 




COMMON PI^UNG^R PUMP. 



Ques. How many valves has a single action plunger 
cump? Ans. Two valves, a receiving valve and a diS' 
charge valve. 



21 



STEAM PUMP IN DKTAII,< 




, I 



LIST OF PARTS. — NBW LEVER MOTION PATTERN. 



1 cSteam Cylinder, 

2 Water Cylinder, 



34 Cap, 

35 Gland 



"I For Valve Rod Stuff"* 
, j ing Box. 



22 

3 Yoke, 44 Water Piston, 1 

4 Valve Chest, 45 Follower, I For Pat. Fi- 

5 Steam Cylinder Head, 46 Inside Ring, etc., f brous Ring 

6 Inside Valve Chest Head, 47 Fibrous Packing, J Packinj? . 

7 Outside Valve Chest Head, 48 Seat, I 

8 Steam Piston, 49 Stem I For Rubber Water 

9 Valve Piston, 50 Spring, ( Valve. 
ID Guide, 52 Cover, | 

12 Water Valve Plate, 51 Rubber Water Valve, 

13 Water Cap, 84 Stem, ) 

14 Water Cylinder Head, 85 Spring, VFor Metal Disc Valve 

15 Water Cylinder I^iniug, 87 Seat, ) 

16 Main Valve, 86 Metal Disc Valve, 

17 Auxiliary Valve, 88 Bearing Stand, 

18 Air Chamber, 89 Piston Rod Arm, 

19 Piston Rod, 90 Lever, 

20 Tappit, 91 Fulcrum Pin, 

21 Tappit Key, 92 Tappit Block Nut, 
12 Tappit Set Screw, 93 Piston Rod I^ink, 

23 IvUbricator, 94 I,ink Pin, 

24 Valve Rod^ 95 Piston Rod Arm Bolt, 
25-25-25 25 Dnp Plugs or Cocks, 96 Piston Rod Arm Pin, 

26 Eye Bolt and Nut, 97 I^ever Pin, 

27 Water Piston, 98 Tappit Block, 

28 Bushing, i 99 Gland for Stud Stuffing Box. 

29 Gland, >For Piston Rod stuff-ioo Valve Rod Links, 

30 Cap, J ing Box. loi Link Stud, Washer and Nut. 

31 Nut, ) 

32 Flange Nut, >For Piston Rod 

33 Check Nut, j 

Ques. How many valves has a double action? Ans. 
Four, two receiving and tvK> disciiarging. The double 
action receives and discharges both strokes. This kind 
of a pump has a steam cylinder on one end. The large 
pumps have eight, sixteen and thirty-two small valves on 
water cylinder, according to the size of the pump. 

Ques. Why do large pumps have many small water 
valves and not a few larger ones in proportion? Ans. 
The reason the pumps have small valves is that the valves 
do not have to open as much as larger ones, consequently 
the pump does not loose the quantity of water each stroke 
as it would with larger valves. 

Ques. How are pumps set up and leveled? Ans. Pumps 
are set so the receiving is from the boiler and the dis- 
charge toward the boiler, put in the same size receiving 
and discharge pipe as tapped in the pump, so the pump 



23 

can have a good supply and discharge. The suction 
should be straight as possible and perfectly air tight. The 
pump is leveled with a spirit-level or a square and plumb 
Hne. To level a double-action pump, some level across 
the frame and along the piston; the other way is to take 
the valve chamber cap off the water cylinder and level 
the valve seats, so the valves will rise and drop plumb. 
To level a single action pump, take off the valve cham- 
ber caps and level both ways. 

Ques. How are the water piston heads packed, and 
with what in the water cylinders? Ans. They are gener- 
ally packed with square canvas packing and generally 
takes two or three pieces; one piece is jointed on top, and 
the others about ^ way around to make, what engineers 
call, a broken joint. The packing runs from X to ^ 
inch square. These are the general sizes used for com- 
mon sized pumps. 

Ques. How are the steam valves of duplex pumps set 
and adjusted? Ans. Take off the valve chest cover, shove 
the piston against one of the cylinder heads and mark 
the piston rod with a pencil at the packing-box gland, 
then shove the piston against the other cylinder-head and 
make another mark, find the centre between the two 
marks and move the piston until the centre mark reaches 
the packing box gland where the first mark was made. 
Or in other words plumb the lever that connects the valve 
rocker shaft and the piston. After this is done, see how 
the steam valve is for lead; if equal at both ends the 
valve is set, if not, adjust by uncoupling the valve stem 
at the coupling outside of the packing box, and turn to 
suit the adjustment in equalizing the ''lead. *' 

Ques. What other valve has a pump near the boiler? 
Ans. A check valve. 

Ques. Ofwhat use is a check valve? Ans. To hold the 



24 

water that is forced into the boiler from coming hack, in 
case there is any work to be done on the pump itself * 




loi steam Cylinder. 

102 Water Cylinder. 

103 Yoke. 

104 Valve Chest. 

105 Steam Cylinder Head. 

106 Valve Chest Stuflang box 

107 Steam Pipe. 

108 Steam Piston. 

109 Valve Rod Head, 
no Long Valve Rod Link. 
Ill Short Valve Rod Link. 



95 



iia Hand Hold plate for cap. 
X13 Water Cap. 

114 Water Cylinder Head. 

115 Water Plunger Bushing. 

116 Steam Valve. 

117 Plunger Bushing Ring. 

118 Air Chamber and Tee. 

119 Piston Rod. 

120 lyong Crank. 

121 Short Crank. 

122 Steam Cylinder Foot. 

123 Lubricator. 
X24 Valve Rod. 

125 Drip Cock. 

126 Hand Hole Plate forW.C. 

127 Water Plunger. 

128 Plunger Bushing Stud. 

129 Piston Rod Gland. 

130 Piston Rod Link Arm. 

131 Piston Rod Nut. 

132 Piston Rod Link. 



133 Piston Rod Check Nut. 

134 Oil Cup. 

135 Valve Rod Gland. 

136 Long Lever. 

137 Short Lever. 

138 Pin for Valve Rod Head. 

139 Lever Pin. 

140 Link Arm Pin. 

148 Water Valve Seat. 

149 Water Valve Stem. 

150 Water Valve Spring. 

151 Water Valve. 

152 Water Valve Cover. 

162 Steam Piston Head. 

163 Steam Piston Follower. 

164 Steam Piston Packing Rings. 

165 Steam Piston Wed^e. 

166 Steam Piston Packing Screw. 

167 Steam Piston Spring. 

168 Valve Chest Cover. 

169 Bearing Stand. 



Ques. What instructions must one give in ordering a 
steam pump? Ans. In ordering a pump, the buyer should 
inform the parties of whom he orders a pump, the follow- 
ing points: 1. For what purpose the pump is used. 2. 
The nature of the liquid to be pumped, hot, cold, salty, 
fresh, clear or gritty, also the largest quantity required to 
be pumped per hour. 3. To what height lifted and what 
height forced . 4. The ordinary pressure of steam used. 
P. S. When ordefing parts for pump in use, order by 
proper name, also stating size of pump and manufacture, 
whether new or old style. 

Ques. Could water be forced into the boiler if there 
were three or four check valves on the discharge pipe? 
Ans. Yes, water could be forced through all, but it would 
be more labor on the pump. 

Ques. Where is a pet cock put on the pump barrel for 
cold water, and why? Ans. It is put at the side and near 
the bottom of the pump barrel, and is there to show how 
the pump is working, and to drain the pump in winter to 
prevent it from freezing. 

Ques. How is it known when the pump is in good 



26 

working order? Ans. By opening the pet cock and no- 
ticing the stream that comes out. 

Ques. How does the stream show when the pump is in 
good working order? Ans. Nothing in the suction stroke 
and full force in the discharge stroke. (Single action.) 

Ques. Where would the trouble be if water came full 
force both strokes? Ans. The trouble would be located 
at the check and discharge valves, both being caught up. 

Ques. Where would the trouble be located if water 
came full force both strokes, moderate, tank or hydrant 
pressure? Ans. At the receiving valve. 

Ques. Can a pump work without a check valve? Ans. 
If the discharge valve in the pump is in good order, it 
can; but if there is neither check nor discharge valve, it 
can not. 

Ques. Can a boiler be fed without a pump? Ans. If the 
pressure of the boiler is below the pressure of the feed 
water or city pressure, it can, by simply opening a water 
valve and letting in the amount of water required, 

Ques. By what other means is a boiler fed? Ans. By 
an injector or an inspirator. 

Ques. What is an injector or an* inspirator? Ans. 
They are devices to answer for a pump in feeding a boil- 
er; they draw force and heat the water at the same time. 

To CONNKCT THE INSPIRATOR. 

In all cases connect so it will take steam from the 
highest point of boiler. Place a globe valve in steam 
pipe, just above the inspirator; a globe valve in the 
supply pipe, close to the Inspirator, and a Check and 
Globe valve between Inspirator and boiler. If the feed 
is delivered through a heater, place a check between it 
and the Inspirator. 

Blow out steam pipe before connecting. For a high 



27 

lift or long draft, make the suction one size larger than 
"6ancock inspirator. 



^TEAW 




^ATER 



FEED 



ove;rfi,ow vai<v^ undb;r fk^o. 



28 
TO START THE INSPIRATOR. 

See that the overflow valves, marked 1 and 3 are open 
and the forcer valve marked 2, is closed. Give full 
steam. After getting^ water, close No. 1, open No. 2 one 
quarter of a tfirn, close No 3, and the Inspirator is at 
work. 

the connection. Be sure that the section pipe is absol' 
utely tight. 

The Conditions must be: 

First. An Air tight Suction. 

Second. An abundant supply of water, with a lift not 
exceeding 25 feet, and a temperature not exceeding 140 
degrees Fahr. for a low lift, and 110 degrees for a 25 foot 
lift. 

Do not connect with other steam pipes. 

Tap the boiler where you can obtain the Dryest 
Steam, and if you are obliged to connect with a large 
steam pipe, tap it on the upper side so as to avoid the 
drip caused by condensation in the large pipe. 

Do not allow boiler compositions of any kind to pass 
through the Inspirator. 

In case the Inspirator becomes incrusted with lime 
disconnect it and place it in a bath composed of one part 
of muriatic acid and 9 parts of soft water. Leave the In. 
spirator in the liquid over night. 

Ques. State the principal upon which a jet of steam 
taken from the boiler at boiler pressure can force a 
stream of water back into the boiler through the Injector 
or Inspirator? Ans. It acts upon the principal of a light 
body moving at a high velocity giving a slower motion 
to a heavier body effecting an entrance by means of the 
momentum thus given to it. For instance, steam at the 
pressure of 80 lbs to the square inch will escape into ike 



29 

air with a velocity of 1,821 feet per second or 1,241 miles 
per hour. This rapidly moving jet of steam causes, at 
first a vacuum in the casing of the injector which fills 
with water. The steam then mingles with the water, 
condenses and imparts its velocity to it. The stream of 
water is then forced along the pipe and strikes the check 
valve with a force sufficient to open it and then enters 
the boiler. 

Ques . Will the inspector work if the water that is sup- 
plied is to hot to condense the steam? Ans. No. 

Ques. Why? Ans. Because steam is highly elastic and 
bulky, and, of itself, would have no effect in driving the 
hot water in any particular direction. But when steam 
is moving at a high velocity and is condensed, these par- 
ticles of water have the power of driving the main body 
before it into the boiler. 

KXCEI.SIOR BOII^KR FEEDER. 




The principal is easily explained, for instance; if a 
block of wood is laid upon the water it will float, but if 
it is thrown violently downward it will at first go below 
the surface . Then if there were something there to catch 
it and hold it, we would have a state of affairs similar to 
the injector, where the water enters the boiler by its own 
momentum and is held there bv th^ch^ck valve. 



30 

DIRECTIONS FOR CONNl^CTlNG TO THE BOII.KR. 

Take the dry steam from tlie highest part of the boilek"" 
and connect to the coupling on top of the feeder, placing 
a globe valve on this at any point most convenient for 
the user to work it. This valve should be kept in good 
ORDEJR so AS NOT TO B^ I^^AKING STEAM WHEN NOT IN 
OPERATION. Attach the feed pipe to the coupling on 
end of feeder taking to boiler opening, place a good 
check valve at this point near to boiler as practicable. 
It is desirable in laying suction pipe to commence at the 
well or tank, make as few joints as possible, AS TH^ 
WATER I.INE MUST BE AiR-TiGHT, otherwise the feeder 
will not work; connect this to the coupling on bottom of 
feeder. 

If the lift or draw from water supply is over ten feet 
distance the pipe should be one size larger than the con- 
nections on feeder. 

Then remove the feeder from the couplings and blow 
out steam pipes to remove iron, scales, and lead used in 
the connections, etc. Thi^should be observed and save 
the dirt from getting into the jets of feeder. 

To Pi^ACE THE Feeder in Position eor Working. 
— Push the lever towards the feed line till it stops. 

To Operate. — Give it full steam by the steam valve; 
when water appears at overflow, slowly reverse position 
of lever to stop, when feeder is at work. 

Operate Under Pressure. — In supplying the In- 
jector from a hydrant or tank pressure, place a globe 
valve in the water pipe to regulate the quantity of water 
delivered to the Injector. When the water pressure i^ 
very great, this valve should be partly closed, to give 
satisfactory results. 

Ques. Must a pump have valves? Ans. Yes if a 



31 

pump did not have any valves it could not do any work. 
A pump is not a pump unless it has a valve. 

Ques. Name the different pumps? Ans. The common 
well hand pumps with one valve, called a receiving or 
suction valve, the force or common plunger pump with 
two valves, a receiving and discharge. 

Ques. Explain the working of the valves? Ans. The 
discharge is to retain the water after it is delivered, so that 
the plunger can get a fresh supply. After the plunger 
has ascended and begins to descend, the water sets on 
top of the receiving and under the discharge; conse- 
quently, when the plunger descends it forces the receiv- 
ing shut and the discharge open. 

Ques. Give the proper lift for check valves on feed 
pipes. Ans. The duty has much to do with lift of valve, 
for instance, pumps used for pumping under very high 
pressures, the valves are given a very little lift, thereby 
lessening the shock and prolonging the life of the valves. 

Ques. Should there not be another valve between the 
check valve and the boiler? Ans. Yes, a globe valve. 

Ques. Why is it put there? Ans. To close and keep 
the pressure in the boiler, in case the check valve is 
caught up and needs repairing. 

Qeus. Can a pump raise, lift or suck hot wajter? Ans. 
Not very well. 

Ques. Why? Ans. Because the pump would get steam 
bound. Hot water should be level or higher than the 
pump in order that the pump should work well. 

Ques. Where should a pet cock be put on the pump 
barrel for hot water? Ans. At the top of barrel, imme- 
diately under the packing ring. (Plunger pump.) 

Ques. Why is it put there? Ans. To let out steam 
when steam bound, and air when air bound. There 
t/hould be a pet cock tapped in the cap of the valve 



3a 

chamber to let oflF the steam or air when steam or air 
bound. 

Ques. If there was no pet cock on the valve chamber 
cap, what could be done ? Ans. Simply take a wrench 
and loosen one of the chamber cap nuts a little until the 
air or steam was out, then tighten it again. 

Ques. Why is an air chamber put on a double action 
pump, and what is it ? Ans. It is simply a copper vessel 
air tight. When the pump is working, the water is 
forced up into the chamber, which compresses the air, 
and the compressed air acts as a cushion on the valves 
and piston head in the water cylinder. 

Ques. What is meant by the term cushion ? Ans. A 
cushion is anything that is compressed, and by its com- 
pression is formed into a higher and stronger pressure, 
acting as a spring, deadening any knock that might 
occur. In a pump, water will cause a knock, it being as 
solid as iron minus the air, so if a double action pump 
had no air chamber, there would be a continual knock. 

Ques. What is known by the term vacuum ? Ans. A 
vacuum is a space void of matter. 

Ques. Can a perfect vacuum be created ^ Ans. No, 
about 9 to 1 1 per cent, of the atmospheric pressure which 
is 14.7 pounds per square inch. 

Ques. What will a vacuum do ? Ans. It is supposed 
to lift water 33 feet, providing all pipes and connections 
are air tight. (The best known lift is 29^ feet, ) 

Ques. How is a vacuum created or made? Ans. 
When the plunger of a pump is well packed and it pulls, 
it excludes the air out of the pump barrel and suction 
pipe, consequently the water, being at the other end of 
the pipe, it follows the plunger; or, in other words, the 
atmospheric pressure, being 14.7 pounds per square inch, 
forces the water up the pipe to fill the vacancy made bv 
the plunger forming the vacuum. 



33 

> 

Ques. What should be placed a the bottom of the 
suction piper Ans. A strainer made out of gauze wire, 
a foot valve and a pet cock to drain it. 

Ques. If the pump was not working and the water 
nmning low, and you were asked to run awhile longer, 
would you run and let the water become dangerously 
low? Ans. No, take no chances whatever, but shut 
down and go about finding the trouble. 

Ques. Where would you look for the trouble ? Ans. 
Open the pet cock of the pump, and that will nearly tell 
where it is; if no water came, the water is ^hut off, or 
there is none, etc, (as stated before.) 

Ques. What prevents a pump from working ? Ans. 
Not enough water, too small a suction pipe, the obstruc- 
tion of the valves to seat by straws, sticks or anything 
that may be drawn through the suction pipe, or the 
valves sticking. 

Ques. If an accident happened, such as a broken pipe 
connecting the boiler and pump, so that sufficient water 
could not be had to supply the boiler, what should be 
done? Ans. Simply shut down the engine and all valves 
connected with the boiler, draw the fire, raise the flue 
caps, and close the damper. 

Ques. Why so. Ans. To keep what water there is 
in the boiler until the trouble is found and repaired. 

Ques. If the suction pipe should spring a leak, what 
should be done ? Ans. Take a piece of sheet rubber, 
some copper wire, wrap around tight, and stop the leak 
•temporarily. 

Ques. It the hydrant, that supplies the pump with 
water, should happen to get broken, what should be 
done ? Ans. First see how much water there is in the 
boiier, by trying the gauge coiiiks, then shut off the water 
in the street, or wherever the lazy cock lay, and try. if 
3 



34 

/&i>ssibie to repair it. If an injector or inspirator was at 
iached, and had a tank or well supply, use either until 
the break is repaired. 

Ques. For instance, if there were neither of these, 
what should be done ? Ans. Shut down the engine, 
close the damper, raise the flue caps and draw the fire,, 
then there would be no danger. 

Ques. What is a gravity steam trap. Ans. A device 
for returning the water of condensation for a heating 
system to the boiler by gravity. 

Ques. i^xplain its construction and operation ? Ans. 
The trap is usually spherical, containing a float which 
rises as the water accumulates, at its full heighth. The 
float closes the return valve and opens boiler connections, 
both steam and water, equalizing the pressure. The 
trapped water being a trifle above the water line in the 
boiler will seek its level and escape into the boiler at its 
complete discharge, the float falls closing all the boiler 
connections and opening the return drip and air valve at 
the top of trap allowing the drip to refill the trap again, 
etc. 

Ques. How high should a valve lift to clear itself? 
Ans. About one-fourth of its diameter or one-third of its 
area. 

Ques. What proportions should the valves be to any 
sized pump ? Ans. They should be one- fourth the area 
of the pump itself. 

Ques. Suppose in the evening when you shut down, 
that the pump was in good working order, and when you- 
started up the next morning and opened the pump pet 
cock a strong stream of water came out both strokes, 
where would you locate the trouble ? Ans. The trouble 
would be at both the check and discharge valves being 
caught up. 



35 

Ques. Suppose you started the pump and it was in 
good order, and no water came; where would you locate 
the trouble ? Ans. The suction pipe is leaking out of 
water, or there is no water. 

Ques. State the usual area proportion of the cylinders 
of the steam pump ? Ans. The steam cylinder averages 
four times the area of the water cylinder. 

THE ENGINE. 

Ques. What is a steam engine ? Ans. A steam en- 
gine is a machine through which power is obtained from 
steam. 

Ques. What is steam ? Ans. Steam is a gaseous vapor 
evaporated from water, by heat, and is composed of hy- 
drogen and cxygen. 

Ques. How do you know water is composed of hydro- 
gen and oxygen ? Ans. Science shows that i pound of 
hydrogen with 8 pounds of oxygen is equal to 9 pounds 
of water. 

Ques. What is an engine composed of? Ans. A bed 
plate, cylinder, connecting rod, crank, crank-shaft, main- 
pillow block, out pillow block, tail block, cross-head, 
wrist-pin in cross-head, crauk-pin, two cylinder heads, 
piston-rod, piston-head, follower head, bull-ring, packing 
rings, follower plate and bolts, connecting rod and brass. 
es, pillow-block brasses, a valve, and guides where the 
cross-head slides in, so the piston is kept central in the 
cylinder. The main pillow-block brasses are generally 
made into four pieces, called top, bottom and two quar- 
ter brasses; they are made into four parts, so as to take 
up the lost motion. 

Ques. What precaution should be taken in starting 
engines? Ans. All engine cylinders should be well 
drained and heated before starting, then the engine 



36 
should be started slowly, as the water that accumulates 




sn me cylinder may injure the piston, cylinder, or cylin- 



3> 

der heads. Always leave the cylinder cocks open when 
not running, and they should remain so until the cylinder 
IS heated by the steam, — after the engine has been run- 
ning at full speed about 5 minutes or such a matter. 

Ques. What keeps the rod from running off the crank 
pin ? Ans. The outside shoulder on the crank-pin. 

Ques. If water should accumulate in the cylinder, 
what would be the consequence ? Ans. It is liable to 
crack the cylinder and disable the engine, also cause loss 
of life. 

Ques. If you had charge of an engine in the country, 
and the cylinder head should happen to crack, how 
would you remedy it in a hurry ? Ans. If not broken 
too bad, try to patch it with pieces of iron or boards, and 
brace it from the wall with a piece of heavy scantling, 
then try and run the engine until a new cylinder heajd 
could be made, or make a wooden cylinder head tempor- 
arily. 

Ques. What size should a steam pipe and an exhaust 
pipe be to any size cyliader? Ans. The steam pipe 
should be one-fourth and the exhaust pipe one-third the 
diameter of the engine cylinder itself. 

Ques. If your crank pin or other journals became hot, 
what would you do ? Ans. Try, while running, to get 
water on them, then oil them; if that would not do, stop 
and slack up the key a little, then start up again. 

Ques. If the cylinder had shoulders inside, or was out 
of a true circle, what should be done ?^ Ans. Bore it, or 
have it bored out. 

Ques. In case the throttle valve should become loose 
from the stem and prevent the steam from entering the 
valve chest what should be done? Ans. Close the 
valve next to the boiler, if there is one; if not, let the 
boiler cool down, then tak^ the valve and stem out an^ 
repair it. 



Ques. It tne slide valve was not steam-tigiit, what 
sLould be done? Ans. Have the valve planed, then 
chip, file and scrape the seat to a full bearing. 

Ques. If the crank and wrist-pins are worn out of 
true, what should be done? Ans. Caliper aud file them 
until they are round and true. 

Ques. What causes the wrist-pin in the cross-head and 
crank-pin to wear the way they do? Ans. It is simply 
the motion they have; the crank goes all the way round, 
forming a circle, and the wrist only vibrates. 

Ques. If the cross-head or crank-pin brasses were 
brass-bound, what should be done? Ans. They should be 
chipped and filed. 

Ques. How do you know when you have taken off 
enough? Ans. By outside and inside calipers. 

Ques. How does steam enter the cylinder? Ans. In 
common slide-valve engines it enters through one of the 
end ports and exhausts back through the same port, 
when the cavity of the valve has covered it and the ex- 
haust port at the same time. 

Ques. What is meant by clearance? Ans. Clearance 
is the space between the piston head, cylinder head and 
valve face at each end of the stroke. 

Ques How would you know the amount of clearance 
there was in that space? Ans. By finding the number of 
cubic inches in a bucket of water, then fill up the space 
level with the steam port, and see how much water is left 
in the bucket; the difference is the contents in cubic 
inches. 

Ques. Why are gibs, keys and set screws used on both 
ends of the connecting rod? Ans. They are there to take 
up lost motion . 

Ques. How is it done? Ans. By loosening up the set 
screw, and driving down the key; then tighten the set 
screw to keep the key from raising. 



39 



Thk Gardner Governor. 




1 Valve Chamber. 

2 Valve. 

3 Valve Seats (2). 

4 Frame. 

5 Gears Mitre. 

^ Lever Ball Screw. 



13 Pulley. 

14 Oil Cup. 

15 Pulley Shaft. 

16 Shaft Bearing. 

17 Stuffing Box. 

18 Head. 



40 

7 Arms (2). 19 Arm Pins (2). 

8 Toe Plate. 20 Valve Stem. 

9 Spindle. 21 Arm Balls. 

10 I^ever. 22 Lever Ball. 

11 Fnlcrum and Stud. 23 Check Stud. 

12 Step Bearing. 24 Sleeve Centers (2). 
Ques. Are there more square inches in one end of the 

cylinder than in the other? Ans. In one sense of the 
word there are, and in the otner there are not, as the pis- 
ton rod takes up some of the space in one end of the cyl- 
inder, therefore there is not the same area in one end as 
in the other. 

Ques. What is a governor or an engine for? Ans. It is 
to regulate the steam that passes from the boiler to the 
steam chest, when the throttle is wide open. 

Ques. How does it work? Ans. It is regulated to al- 
low the engine to run at a certain speed. The governor 
has a belt from the main shaft to a pulley (13) on the 
governor. After the engine is running up to the speed it 
is intended to, it allows only enough steam to enter 
through the governor valve to keep up the same speed; if 
the engine needs more power it begins to slack up, the 
governor balls drop, the valve opens and allows more 
steam to enter; consequently, the engine must retain its 
speed; and if the load is taken off it will start to run 
away^ the governor balls will rise, and force the valve 
shut, and cut off the steam; consequently the engine 
must come back to its regular speed. 

.Ques. Are there other makes of governors? Ans. Yes, 
the Automatic Governor. 

Ques. What is a lubricator? Ans. A lubricator is an 
appliance for holding oil, to be distributed into the valve 
chest and cylinder, to prevent cutting. 

Ques. How is it operated? Ans. It is operated by steam 
forcing the oil out of the lubricator into the steam pipe. 



41 




DIRECTIONS. 

How to apply. — First, drill 
and tap the steam pipe above 
the throttle with /^ or X inch 
gas tap as may be required to 
receive the oil discharge pipe. 
Then tap the steam pipe three 
feet or more above the top of 
the condensing chamber as may 
be required, using }{ inch gas 
pipe for steam connecting tube, 
which attach to top of condens- 
er. If, for any reason, the steam 
pipe can not be tapped three 
feet or more above the condens- 
ing chamber, it may be tapped 
lower down and the tube of re- 
quired length may be bent or 
coiled. 



Description of the Sectional cut: 
P. is the condensed water pipe. 
S. is the oil pipe. 



How to fill and operate. — Close valves D and B, open 
valve G, draw off the water, close valve G and fill with 
oil. First, open valve D, then regulate the flow of oil 
with valve E. 

In case of strong pulsation, valve N to be partially 
closed until oil feeds steadily; same to be closed in case 
of breaking feed glass. 

Before starting the cup, time should be allowed for 
sight-feed glass and condensing chamber to fill with wa- 
ter by condensation . 



42 



When there is danger from freezing, when not in use, 
valves D, G and E should be left open. 



DESCRIPTION. 



A — Oil Reservoir. 

B — Steam Pipe. 

C— Oil Filler. 

D— Water Feed Valve. 

K — Valve to regulate 
flow of oil. 

FF — Steam Tube and 
condensing cham- 
ber. 

G— Drain Valve to 
draw off water to 
prevent freezing 

etc. 

H— Sight Feed Glass. 

j__01ass Indicator. 

K-Oil Discharge .pipe. 

N— Valve to correct 
pulsation or un- 
steadiness in feed. 

O— Vent. 



POUNDING ENGINES. 

SOME OF THE CAUSES THAT LEAD TO THIS TROUBLE. 

Since engines of high speed and short stroke have come 
into general use, it is not uncommon to find many of them 
quite noisy. The engineer in charge of a smoothly run- 
ning engine takes great pride in showing it, but when a 




43 

click or pounding is heard, he naturally feels that these 
defects reflect upon his skill, and whether alone or in the 
presence of visitors, it is a constant source of annoyance. 
Many hours of overwork for which he makes no charge, 
are employed in trying to locate the cause of these noises, 
which to outsiders are of no consequence, but to his ear 
become almost unbearable. Sometimes, when the main 
belt is off, the engine runs so smoothly he fancies the 
trouble has been reached, but in the morning when the 
machinery is set to work the exasperating pounding be- 
gins, and to aggravate the case, boxes that formerly had 
given no trouble, begin to heat from being too closely ad- 
justed. 

There are few, perhaps, outside of the engineering pro- 
fession who know how perplexing a thud, or pounding in 
an engine becomes. Go to the cylinder and it seems to 
be there; stand at the crank and the noise is there. The 
sensitive ear of the engnieer can hear nothing else, and 
its continuance aflfects both mind and body in a way that 
is hard to explain. 

It would be as easy to prescribe one remedy for all 
cases of dyspepsia, as to give a rule for finding the causes 
of pounding in an engine. It is well known that a want of 

prope:r ai<ignment 
is one of the most common causes, and every engineer 
worthy of the name should be able to adjust the working 
parts of an engine to a line. Aside from imperfect work- 
manship in the erection of an engine, there are other caus- 
es of pounding to which we may call attention, the obscu- 
rity of some of these, may cause them to be overlooked. 
Wrist-pins in both cranks and cross-heads naturally wear 
unevenly, and these defects are frequently allowed to go 
on until the boxes will become quite loose at the dead 
centers, and tight at the quarter centers. Calipers ap- 



44 

plied to the wrists will detect these defects. Another de- 
fect in wrist-pins, not so easily detected, is faulty work- 
manship, the wrists not being placed squarely in the crank 
or cross head. A good spirit level will detect the slight- 
est deviation in this and may be applied as follows: Dis- 
connect the rod from the cross head and tighten it to the 
crank pin so it may turn, but not vibrate sidewise; place 
the rod in a position to move freely as the crank is turned; 
attach a spirit level to the rod with a clamp , and in line 
with the main shaft. It matters not whether the main 
shaft be leveled . The position of the bulb in level should 
not change when the crank is revolved. But if the wrist 
pin is not set squarely, the level will be tipped from side 
to side, as the crank revolves, and the places the bulb oc- 
cupies at different points in the revolution will indicate 
the direction the wrist takes from that of a correct posi- 
tion. It will be readily seen that this test detects the 
slightest discrepancy, as the deviation is doubled by this 
reversing of the position of the wrist in its revolution. It 
may be a matter of surprise in thus examining wrist-pins, 
to find how many there are that are not set 

PKRFKCTlvY SQUARE. 

The power of such a wrist to strain, and open its boxes 
is almost unlimited and most seriously affect the running 
of an engine. 

Another fruitful cause of unstea(^y motion and noise in 
the running of an engine, is improperly balanced cranks. 
Much has been written on this subject, so we will leave it 
by merely saying that a disk cs^ank, in order to hold the 
proper amount of balance, should be several inches larger 
than is, needed for the stroke of the engine. This we 
learned a number of years ago, and have since seen that 
many builders of high speed engines have adopted this 
plan. 



45 

Pounding is sometimes aggravated, or in fact produced, 
by improperly proportioned valves. Especially is this so 
when engines have high speed and heavy reciprocating 
parts. The questions involved are of vital importance in 
Vhe construction of a good and economical engine, but 
they are too intricate to be treated here. The one feature 
to which we call attention is that of the cushion. This is 
to confine enough exhaust steam in the cylinder at the 
termination of each stroke to form a spring as it were, to 
deceive the impact of the piston as it is brought to a stop, 
[f this force is not spent on such a spring, it evidently 
falls on the boxes in the rod and main shaft. If such 
faults as these exist, they may never come to notice, but 
if they should, the engineer has no remedy, unless it be 
by patching the old valves, or introducing a new one. So 
he is not always to be censured when his engine does not 
run smoothlv, for these defects may indeed be chronic 
and have their origin in the designing room or in the 
workshop. 

Ques. What is the best way to get a line shaft in line 
without taking the shaft out? Ans. jThe best way is to 
use specially prepared instruments, but in absence of 
these a very good way is to run a line along, say 8 inthes 
to one side of the shaft and paralled to its centre; then by 
the use of an ordinary level bring the shaft up level, and 
for side alignment use a piece of wood with one end 
formed to fit the shaft and the other brought to a point. 
By placing the curved end against the shaft and bringing 
the shaft so that the pointed end of the stick will just 
touch the line along its entire length will secure a nicely 

running shaft provided that the couplings are bored out in 
line. Very often a poorly lifted shaft in the coupler is 
the cause of a badly running shaft, requiring extra pow- 
er to drive it and no amount of lining up will remedy the 
evil. 



46 



LINING AN ENGINE. 

Ques. How would you line up an engine ? Ans. By 
stripping the engine, take off both cylinder heads, if con- 
venient; then take out the follower head, piston rings, 
bull-ring-; disconnect the piston from the cross-head; also 
disconnect the connecting rod from the cross-head and 
the crank pin; then take a slotted stick and place it on 
one of the studs on the end of cylinder furthest from the 
crank, then draw a fine sea-grass line over the stick and 
through the centre of cylinder, and attach it to an up- 
right stick at the other end of the bed-plate, nailed to 
the floor or clamped to the bed-plate; then take a thin 
stick, (like a lead pencil) the length of it being a half 
inch less than half the diameter of cylinder, and stick a 
pin in each end of the stick, so they can be forced in or 
drawn out to suit the adjustment; then centre the line at 
each end of the cylinder at the counter-bore from four 
sides. Never centre the line in the stuffing box where 
the piston passes through, but use the inside counter bore 
under all circumstances, whether you can remove the 
back cylinder head or not. Some engine cylinder heads 
and frames are one; consequently, the head can not and 
must not be moved. 

Ques. If one counter-bore was larger than the other 
what should be done ? Ans. Centre it accordingly, by us- 
ing two centering sticks. 

Ques. Why is the counter-bore used ? Ans. Because 
the counter-bore is the only true bore the cylinder has 
that is not worn; consequently, all engineers and ma- 
chinists must be governed by it in lining. 



47 

Ques. What is a counter-bore ? Ans. A counter-bore 
is each end of the cylinder bored from one sixteenth to 
one fourth of an inch larger, from i to 5 inches long, ac- 
cording to the size and length of the cylinder. 

Ques. Of what use is a counter-bore ? Ans. To keep 
the piston from wearing a shoulder in the cylinder at each 
end. 

Ques. Why is it that the counter-bore prevents the 
piston from wearing a shoulder in the cylinder ? Ans. 
Because the piston rings just pass over the edge of the 
regular bore, and by so doing no shoulder can be formed 
in the cylinder. * 

Ques. How are cylinders bored ? Ans. They are gen- 
erally bored on a regular cylinder boring lathe, which 
has a table that can be raised or lowered to suit. The 
regular bore is first bored, then the counter-bore, then 
the two faces for the heads. 

Ques. How is a shaft squared when the line is cen- 
trally through the cylinder ? Ans. By moving the crank- 
pin down to the line and seeing where the line touches 
the crank-pin between the two shoulders, then move the 
pin over to the other dead center, and see how it comes; 
if equal, the shaft is square. 

Ques. If it was out of square X of aa inch, what 
should be done ? Ans. Move the out end pillow-block 
(or tail block.) 

Ques. Why not move the head-block ? Ans. Because 
it would alter the length of the connecting-rod, and be 
liable to knock out a cylinder-head. 

Ques. How would you level a shaft ? Ans. A shaft 
is leveled by a spirit level, or a plumb-line dropped past 
close to the line that comes through the cylinder directly 
in front of the center of shaft; let it drop in a bucket of 



48 

water to keep the plumb-bob from swaying around; then 
try the crank pin at both half strokes (the same principle 
as in squaring), top and bottom, and see how the crank 
pin feels the line ; if equal, the shaft is level. 

Ques. If the shaft was out of level, what should be 
done ? Ans. Simply thin or thicken the brasses, or bab- 
bitt the main pillow and out block bearings, whichever 
the case may be. 

Ques. How is it known if the center of the shaft is in 
line with the line through the cylinder ? Ans. it can be 
found out by placing a two-foot steel square against the 
crank face, under the line through the cylinder, so that 
the heel of the square is at the center of the shaft, and 
see how the square touches the line ; if it touches ex- 
actly, the shaft is in line ; if too hard, the shaft is too 
high ; if not at all, the shaft is too low. 

Ques. How is the shaft raised? Ans. There are 
various ways: by liners, babbitt, heavier or lighter brasses. 

Ques. If the crank was oval and a square was put 
against it, would that be right ? Ans. A spirit level could 
be placed on the square and bring it level, or drop a 
plumb-line, and put the end of the square against the 
crank-shaft center, and let it come against the plumb-line. 
This is a very true way. 

Ques. Now, after the shaft is in line, square and level, 
and is still out over the line X <^f ^^ inch, how could it 
be remedied ? Ans. Simply take it off the crank pin 
brasses and fill in the other side with a brass ring, or 
babbitt the side edge of brasses; in some cases the sides 
of the connecting rod has to be chipped to allow it to 
pass free of the crank-face. 

Ques. Why could it not be taken off the wrist-pin 
brasses in the cross head ? Ans. Because the rod would 



49 

then be out of the center of the cross-head and have a 
tendency to bind the piston in the cylinder and the 
cross-head in the guides, consequently cutting both. 

Ques. Would it not make a difference at the other end 
of the rod ? Ans. No, the closer the crank face the bet- 
ter it would be. 

Ques. Now what should be done ? Ans. lycvel and 
line the guides by putting them in their place, and Hue 
them with a pair of calipers, by calipering them at both 
ends to get them in line with the line through the cylin- 
der, after having found the distance between the side of 
the cross-head and the center of the cross-head where the 
piston enters the cross-head. Ivcvel by spirit level, first 
taking spirit level and trying it in cylinder, if a new one, 
or on top of the cylinder \ /here it has been planed off 
when first bored, for they are the only things to go by. 

Ques. Could the valve seat be used to level by ? Ans. 
No, but alongside of it, where the steam chest rests on. 

Ques. If you had no spirit level, how would you doit? 
Ans. With a plumb-line, by placing a square lengthwise 
on the guides, and try them by bringing the square 
against the line. 

Ques. If DO two-foot square could be had, how could 
one be layed off. Ans. Take a pair of dividers, draw a 
circle, then find four points on the circle, scribe lines from 
point to point, which gives a square. This should be 
done very accurately, or 6, — 8 and lo a triangle. 

Ques. Explain the use and figures on a steel square ? 
Ans. The standard steel square has a blade 24 inches 
long and 2 inches wide, and a tongue from 14 to 18 inches 
long and 1% inches wide. The blade is exactly at right 
angles with the tongue, and the angle formed by them 
Jiii exact right angle, or square corner. A proper square 



50 



should have the ordinary divisions of inches, half inches, 
quarters and eighths, and often sixteenths and thirty* 
seconds. Another portion of the square is divided into 
twelfths of an inch; this portion is simply a scale of 12 feet 
to an inch, used for any purpose, as measuring scale, 
drawing, etc. The diagonal scale on the tongue near the 
blade, often found on squares, is thus termed from its 
diagonal lines. However, the proper term is centesimal 
scale, for the reason that by it a unit may be divided into 
100 equal parts, and therefore any number to the looth 
part of a unit may be expressed. In this scale A B is one 
inch; then if it be required to take 73-100 inches, set one 
foot of the compass in the third parallel under one at B, 
extend the other foot to the seventh diagonal in that 
parallel at G, and the distance between B G is that re- 
quired, for B F is one inch and F G 72 parts of an inch. 

Upon one side of the blade of the square, running par- 
allel with the length, will be found nine lines, divided at 
intervals of one inch into sections or spaces by cross 
lines. This is the plank, board and scantling measure. 
On each side of the cross lines referred to are figures, 
sometimes on one side of the cross line and often spread 
over the line thus: i | 4 — 9 | . We vnll suppose we have 
a board 12 feet long and 6 inches wide. I^ooking on the 
outer edge of the blade we will find 12; between the fifth 
and sixth lines, under 12, will be found 12 again; this is 
the length, '^f the board. Now follow the space along 
towards the tongue till we come to the cross line under 6 
(on the edge of the olade), this being the width of the 
board; In this space will be found the figure 6 again, 
which is the answer in board measure, viz., six feet. 

On some squares will be fouud on one side of the blade 
9 lines, and crossing these lines diagonally to the right 



51 

are rows of figures, as seven is, seven 2s, seven 3s, etc. 
This is another style of board measure and gives the feet 
in a board according to its length and width. 

In the center of the tongue will generally be found 
two parallel lines, half an inch apart, with figures be- 
tween them; this is termed the Brace Rule. Near the ex- 
treme end of the tongue will be found 24-24 and to the 
right of these 33-95. The 24-24 indicate the. two sides of a 
right-angle-triangle, while the length of the brace is 
indicated by 33-95. This will explain the use of any 
of the figures in - the brace rule. On the opposite 
side of the tongue from the brace rule will generally be 
found the octagon scale, situated between two central 
paralell lines. This space is divided into intervals and 
numbered thus: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60. Suppose it be- 
comes necessary to describe an octagon ten inches 
square; draw a square ten inches each way and bisect the 
square with a horizontal and perpendicular center line. 
To find the length of the octagon line, place one point of 
the compasses on any of the main divisions or the scale 
and the other leg or point on the tenth subdivision. This 
length being measured off on each side of center lines, 
touching the line of the octagon will give the points from 
which to draw the octagonal lines. The size of the octa- 
gon must equal the number of spaces taken off from 
the tongue by the compasses. 

Ques. Can a plumb-line hang out of true? Ans. It can 
not, provided it hangs clear of everything. If none of 



Sa 



these were handy, a straight edge must be placed across 
the guides at one end, and see if the guides touch the 
stiaight edge equally at both edges, then caliper the 
distance between the line and the straight edge, also 
at the other end of the guides ;if the same, the guides are 
level lengthwise with the cylinder and line; then level 
the guides crosswise with a plumb-line and square. 

Ques. How is the measure of the connecting rod of an 
engine found? Ans. By finding the striking points. 

Ques. How is that done? Ans. By shoving the pis- 
ton and cross-head up against the cylinder-head, and 
making a mark on the guides at one end of the cross- 
head with a scriber and center-punch; then move the 
piston and cross-head back to the other cylinder-head 
and make another mark on the guide at the same 
end of the cross-head; then measure from the center 
of the crank-pin to center of the shaft: that gives the 
half-stroke; double this, gives the full stroke. If half- 
stroke is 12 inches, the full-stroke is 54 inches; then if the 
distance between the two striking points is 25 inches, 
add the stroke 24 inches, the clearance between the cyl- 
inder-head and piston-head will be ^ inch when the 
piston is at either end of the cylinder. Then move the 
cross-head ^ inch back from the striking point, and 
bring the crank-pin toward the same dead center; then 
tak«5 a tram and measure from the outside center of crank- 
pin to the outside center of wrist pin in cross-head, 



53 

which will give the proper length of the connecting-rod, 
also the right division of clearance. 

Ques. What is meant by the clearance in cylinders ? 
Ans. It is the unoccupied space between the piston-head 
cylinder-head and valve-face, when the crank-pin is at 
either dead center. 

Ques. Does the amount of clearance affect the engine's 
economy? Ans. Yes, it does. 

Ques. How much clearance should there be between 
the piston and cylinder-head ? Ans. It depends upon 
the size; Some have from % to }i oi an inch. 

Ques. What is formed in that space or clearance when 
running? Ans. A cushion. 

Ques. What is a cushion ? Ans. A cushion means 
the steam that enters the cylinder through the lead the 
valve has, and the resistance it makes on the piston-head 
cylinder-head and valve-face as the engine is reaching 
the dead-center. 

Ques. What is the cushion for ? Ans. It is to catch 
the piston and weight of the machinery as it reaches the 
dead-center. 

Ques. How is the connecting-rod shortened or length- 
ened ? Ans. By placing tin or sheet iron liners between 
the brasses and stud-ends of the connecting-rod. 

Ques. Now, if the key had to be raised, how could 
this be done ? Ans.^y putting liners between the straps 
and brasses. 

Ques. Would that not altar Ihe length of the rod ? 
Ans. No. 

Ques. With what tool is a connecting-rod measured ? 
Ans. It is called a ** tram." 

Ques. With what is an engine packed in the stuffing- 
box ? Ans. Some engineers use hemp, others use black 



54 

lead packing, and others use lead rings or metallic pack- 
ing; there are several kinds. Kvery engineer to his own 
taste. 

VALVE MOTION. 

Ques. What is an eccentric ? Ans. An eccentric is a 
subterfuge for a crank; it is anything out of center. 

Ques. How is the throw or stroke of an eccentric de- 
termined ? Ans. By measuring the heavy and the light 
side; the difference between the two is the stroke or 
throw. 

Ques. What throw should a common slide valve en- 
gine eccentric have ? Ans. Generally double the width 
of the entry or steam ports. 

Ques. What is a cam ? Ans. A cam has no definite 
meaning; it has i, 2, 3 or 4 motions; they are used on 
poppet valve engines, used on high pressure river steam- 
boats. 

Ques. How are the valves and eccentric rods of an 
engine found? Ans. By placing the crank pin at its 
dead-center, the center of the eccentric straight or plumb 
above the center of the shaft, the rocker-arm perpendic- 
ular, and the valve covering both parts equally; then 
take a tram and measure from the center of the eccentric 
to the center of the pin where the eccentric rod hooks on 
(generally the lower pin) for the eccentric rod. and from 
the outside center of ttie pin where ^he valve rod is at- 
tached to the furthermost end of the valve allowing for 
two nuts at each end of the valve, called adjusting and 
jamb nuts. 

Ques. How is an eccentric brought plumb ? Ans. By 
dropping two plumb lines, one at each side of the shafl, 
and half the space between the two lines will be where 
the center of the eccentric should stand, with heavy side 
up. 



55 

Ques. What kind of a tool is used to find the exact 
center? Ans. A pair of hennaphrodite calipers, one 
le J of which has a sharp point and the other leg has a 
short foot, so as to feel the line. 

Ques. What does an eccentric rod consist of? Ans. 
An eccentric rod consists of a strap, yoke, rod and two 
nuts; when taking the measure, couple the yoke and the 
strap together, then put a half-inch thick piece of wood 
between the two straps and find the center of the circle 
from four sides, with a pair of hermaphrodite calipers, 
then put the rod in the yoke and adjust it to the proper 
length by the two nuts; if that will not do, the rod must 
be shortened or lengthened, by cutting out or adding a 
piece, whichever the case may be. Then take the meas- 
ure with a tram from the center of the straps to the cen- 
ter of the rod where the rod hooks on lower rocker -arm 
pin. 

Ques. How long is the thread on sC valve-rod ? Ans. 
Long enough to allow two nuts at each end of the valve, 
and space for adjustment. 

Ques. Now, if the rocker-arm stood at a quarter, and 
the eccentric out of plumb, how could the measure for 
the rods be taken ? Ans. Simply bring them plumb 
and take the measure; that is the only right way. 

Ques. After measuring the rods what should be done ? 
Ans. They should be put on and the valve set. 

Ques. How is a valve set after the connections are 
made ? Ans. Move eccentric in the direction the en- 
gine is to run, until the valve begins to take steam or 
lead, then tighten the eccentric temporarily with the set 
screws, then move the crank -pin over to the other dead 
center, and see how much lead the valve has; if equal, 
the valve is set. 



56 

Ques. What is meant by the lead of the valve ? Ans. 
The opening the valve has when the piston is at the be- 
ginning of its stroke. 

Ques. What lead should a large engine have ? Ans. 
About 1-16 of an inch. High speed engines must have a 
quick opening or good lead. 

Qnes. Now if you find the valve laps out ^ of an inch 
on one end, and the proper lead on the other, what 
would you do ? Ans. Divide the difference, by moving 
the valve one-half it is out, by adjusting the valve-gear. 

Ques. How much ? Ans. The valve has 1-16 of an 
inch lead at one end and laps }i of an inch at the other 
end; the valve is out 7-16 of an inch; then the valve 
must be adjusted by the nuts one-half it is out, making 
7-32 of an inch. Then throw the crank on the other 
dead center, move the eccentric whichever way will 
bring the valve back to 1-16 of an inch lead, then tighten 
temporarily with the set screws, throw the crank over on 
the other dead center, and the valve will be set. After 
the valve is set, tighten the eccentric for good. 

Ques. But if it is not set, what would you do ? Ans. 
Go through the same performance until it is set. Some 
valve-rods have a yoke that slips over the valve, while 
the adjusting and jam-nuts a^e between the stuffing box 
and the rocker-arm pin. When a valve-rod has no nuts, 
the adjusting must be done at the ecaentric-rod. 

Ques. How is the stroke of the valve-rod shortened or 
lengthened ? Ans. To lengthen or shorten the stroke of 
the valve-rod, raise or lower the eccentric-rod pin in the 
slot, at the bottom of the rocker-arm, whichever way 
suits the circumstances. 

Ques. Supposing the valve hadjto be set in a hurry, how 
could it be done without seeing the valve ? Ans. Sim- 
ply set the valve by the cylinder cocks. 



57 

Ques. Now after having set the valve, keyed every- 
thing up properly, and there was a thud or dead sound in 
tke engine or cylinder, where would the trouble* most 
likely be ? Ans. In the exhaust being choked. The 
steam chest cover should be taken off, then uncouple the 
valve, turn the valve up sideways and move it until the 
steam edge has the proper lead with the steam-port, then 
place a square on the valve-seat of the cylinder, and 
against the valve-face, to see how the exhaust head on 
the opposite steam-port corresponds. If it is choked, then 
scribe it by allowing a little over double the steam lead. 

Ques. How is the exhaust made larger in common 
slide valve engines ? Ans. By chipping out the exhaust 
cavity in the valve, and rubbing a file over it to smooth it. 

Ques. Is a little over double the steam-lead sufficient 
for the exhaust ? Ans. Yes ; if not, take out a little 
more. 

Ques. Where should the exhaust be ? Ans. It should 
be the furthest from the steam port that is receiving. 

Ques. What amount of lap should the valve have to 
cut off steam at a given point of the stroke of the engine ? 
Ans. Suppose the valve is to cut off steam at ^ of the 
stroke of the engine ; the piston should be moved )i of 
its stroke, then see how much opening the valve has; as 
much opening as the valve has, is the amount of lap re- 
quired to be added to the valve in order to cut off steam at 
^ of engine stroke. This rule answers for all cut offs. 

Ques. What should be done in case the eccentric 
slipped around on the shaft ? Ans. Set the valve the 
same as before. 

Ques. Is the principle of valve setting the same on 
all engines ? Ans. Yes, the principle is the same. 

Ques. How is the dead center of an engine found ? 



58 

Ans. By placing a spirit level on the strap tliat goes 
around the brasses that connect . the crank-pin to the 
connecting-rod, and when it is level the crank is at a 
dead center. ^ If the engine is not level, then use an ad- 
justable level. 

Ques. By what other way is the dead center of an en- 
gine found ? By moving the engine toward the dead 
center until the cross-head stopped moving; then put a 
center punch mark in the floor, and one on the fly-wheel, 
after having marked it with a tram; then move the crank 
over the center until the cross-head begins to move, then 
put another mark; the middle between the two marks is 
the exact dead center; then bring the middle mark to 
the point of the tram; this is done with a small trarm 
with one straight point and a short foot. 

Ques. If the engine had to be run in the opposite di- 
rection to which it had been running, how could it be 
done ? Ans. It could be done by placing the crank-pin 
on the dead center, removing the steam-chest cover, and 
turning the eccentric over on the shaft in the opposite 
direction, until the valve has the proper lead at the op- 
posite port, then try the engine from dead center to 
dead center, to equalize the lead at both ends of the 
valve; then the engine will run in the opposite direction. 

Ques. Does a crank -pin and piston travel the same 
distance? Ans. No, a crank-pin travels 1.1416 times 
further than the piston each revolution, or 0.5707 times 
further each stroke. For example, take an engine with 
a 12-inch stroke, the piston travels 24 inches and the 
crank pin 37.6992 inches each revolution, or the piston 
travels 12 inches each stoke and the crank-pin 18.8496 
per single stroke of piston. To do this, multiply the 
single stroke by one-half of 3.1416, which is 1,5708, and 
the answer will be the distance the crank-pin travels fur- 



59 

ther than the piston per single stroke. This rule an* 
swers for all engines. Another fact, not generally known 
by many men is that a crank of an engine, at two certain 
points travels a long distance while the motion of the 
cross-head is hardly noticed. When the center of the 
crank-shaft and crank-pin are in a line with the piston- 
rod, no steam pressure applied to either side of the piston 
can set the engine in motion; this is called the dead 
center. 

Ques. Is the piston-head in the center of the cylinder 
when the centers of the crank-pin and crank-shaft are 
plumb, or in right angles with the cylinder ? Ans. No, 
under no circumstances. 

Ques. What is a revolution ? Ans. It means that the 
crank has turned once around, or made a circle. 

Ques. How many strokes has a revolution ? Ans. 
Two to each revolution. 

Ques. If an engine has 36 inches stroke, and makes 
80 revolutions per minute, how many feet does it travel 
in a minute ? Ans. 36 inches multiplied by 2 equals 72 
inches, this multiplied by 80 revolutions equals 5760 
inches, which divided by 12 equals 480 feet per minute. 

Ques. If asked the horse power of any sized engine, 
could you tell it ? Ans. Yes. 

Ques. Well, how would you go about it," and what is a 
horse power ? Ans. A horse power is 33,000 pounds 
raised i foot high in i minute, or 150 pounds raised 22b 
feet high in one minute. To find the horse power of any 
engine, first find the area of the piston-head face, then 
multiply the answer by the average pounds pressure per 
square inch in cylinder, then multiply by the number of 
feet traveled in i minute, and divide by 33,000. 



6o 



EXAMPI^K: 
Cylinder 12 x 24 in. 12 diam. of cylinder. 

65 revolutions. 12 

Average pressure 40 lbs. 144 sq. of diameter. 

Note. — The mean or 78^4 

average '^x^ssMx^inW^^ '/OH- » 

cylinder is less than the , , * 

pressure in the boiler. 



stea^ tocy«ndt?'^s^cu1 "3-0976 area op p. h. face. 

ofif before the stroke is 

completed. Hence the 40 averag pressure in 

steam in the cylinder ^ i • j 

will expand and con- the Cylinder. 

sequently diminish in 

pressure towards the 4523-9<^40 

end of each stroke. /- -»-r /< i 

Generally allow about 260 No. ft. trav. by p. 

Yi the boiler pressure 

in figuring the H. P. " ^^ 



33000)1176215.0400(35.9428 I. H. P. 
A HORSE^S POWER. 



MECHANICAI, INTERPRETATION OF THIS UNIT OF 
MEASURE. * 



The question is often asked: What constitutes a horse- 
power It is generally known to be a unit of measure as 
applied to steam, water, electricity, or any other energy 
that can he converted into useful effect. Yet the means 
employed for giving definiteness to the expression are 
not so generally understood. The term, doubtless, came 
into use with the introduction of the steam engine^ and 
a mechanical equivalent has been universally accepted, 
which is expressed in foot-pounds, that is to say, 33,000 
lbs. raised one foot in a minute, constitute one horse- 
power. 



6i 



To those not familiar with the principles of mechanics 
this may not be intelligible. Some simple examples and 
illustrations may, therefore, be allowable. Force or 
weight, and motion are inseparable in estimating the 
power which a moving body may exert, and these two 
factors, being equal in value, their order may be reversed 
without affecting the result. For example, one pound 
raised 33,000 feet in a minute represents a horse power 
as perfectly as if the feet were pounds, as in the first rule 
given, the power being better suited to the calculation of 
the power of steam, on account of its great force. 

We will first compare the rule with the actual powers 
of a horse, and then apply it to the steam engine, for 
which it has been established. The usual traveling gait 
of a horse, hitched to a light vehicle, is about five miles 
an hour, or 440 feet per minute. Now, if we attach a 
scale to the singletree we may note the amount of power 
the horse is exerting. Assuming this to be 75 lbs. the 
product of the speed per minute, 440 by 75, gives us 33,- 
000, which in dynamics, is called foot-pounds, and rep- 
resents a horse-power. 

In applying this to a steam engine we have first to de- 
termine the area of the piston, that is, the number of 
square inches it contains; and next, the average pressure 
of steam applied to it, which is termed the mean effective 
pressure. The steam gauge at boiler gives no evidence 
of what this may be but an instrument called an indicator 
attached to a oylinder, gives it exactly, and it is often a 
matter of surprise to find only 20 or 30 lbs. per square 
inch, when the steam in the boiler is held at 80 and 90 
ibs. Practice with this instrument has also shown that 
when ordinary slide valve engines are worked to their 
maximum capacities, the average pressure on the piston 
is only about half that of the boiler pressure, and if by 



62 



reason of a short valve, the average pressure is increased, 
it is done at a great sacrifice in the 

ECONOMY OF STEAM, 

We speak of this curtailment of pressure because so 
many In applying the rules we are about to give, assume 
too high a pressure in estimating the power of their en- 
gines. The next step in the calculation is to determine the 
speed of the piston when the engine is at its regular 
work. We will take an engine of 20^^ stroke, making 
150 revolutions per minute. The piston travels 40^^ or 
33^ feet at each turn. The piston speed is therefore 500 
feet per minute. We now have all data necessary for 
the calculation, except the average piston pressure, which 
we will assume to be 30 lbs. on a 10 inch piston. The 
area of this is 78.54 square inches. The formula, then 
will stand thus, 

30X78.54X500 
= 35.7 H. P. 

It will be seen that the total pressure on the piston is 
23.56.2 lbs., which, moving at the rate of 500 feet per 
minute, make 1. 178.100 foot-pounds, and every 33,000 of 
these is a horse power Hence, to divide by 33,000 gives 
us 35.7 H. P. 

It is sometimes found convenient to omit the first fac- 
tor of pressure and make this a unit. We then get the 
H. P. of the engine for one pound to the ihch, which in 
this case is 1.19 horsepower. We may now multiply 
this by any number of pounds we may secure. In case it 
be 30 we have the result 35.7 as before; if 40 lbs. we have 
46 6 horse-power? 



63 



THE INDICATOR 



( Thompson's 




The steam engine indicator is an instrument for snow- 
ing the pressure of steam in the cylinder at all points of 
the stroke, or for producing actual diagrams. The indi- 
cator consists of a small cylinder accurately bored out, 
and fitted with a piston, capable of working in the ( indi- 
cator) cylinder with little or no friction, and yet be prac- 
tically steam-tight. The piston l^s an area of just >^ of 
a square inch, and its motion in the cylinder is 25-32 of 
an inch. 



64 

The piston-rod is connected to a pair of light levers, so 
linked together that a pencil carried at the center of the 
Hnk moves in nearly a straight line through a maximum 
distance of 3>^ inches. A spiral spring placed in the 
cylinder above the piston, and of a strength proportioned 
to the steam pressure, resists the motion of the piston; 
and the elasticity of this spring is such that each pound 
of pressure on the piston causes the pencil to move a cer- 
tain fractional part of an inch. The pencil in this case is 
made of a piece of pointed brass wire, which retains its 
sharpness for a considerable time, and yet makes a well- 
defined line upon the prepared paper generally used with 
the indicator. 

The paper is wound around the drum, which has a di- 
ameter of 2 inches, and is capable of a semi-rotary mo- 
tion upon its axis to such an extent that the extreme 
length of diagram may be 5^ inches. Motion is given to 
the drum in one direction, during the forward stroke of 
the engine, by means of a cord connected indirectly to 
the cross-head of the engine, and the drum is brought 
back again during the return stroke of the engine by the 
action of a coiled spring at its base. 

The conical stem of the instrument permits it to be 
turned around and fixed in any desired position, and the 
guide-pulleys attached to the instrument under the paper 
drum may also be moved around so as to bring the cord 
upon the drum-pulley from any convenient direction. 

The upper side of the piston is open to the atmosphere; 
the lower side may, by means of a stop-cock, be put into 
communication either with the atmosphere or with the 
engine cylinder. 

When both sides of the piston are pressed upon by the 
atmosphere, the pencil, on being brought into contact 



65 

with the moving paper, describes the atmospheric line. 
When the lower side of the piston is in communication 
with the engine cylinder, the position of the pencil is de- 
termined by the pressure of the steam existing in the 
cylinder; and on the pencil being pressed against the 
paper during a complete double stroke of the engine, the 
entire indicator diagram is described. 

In order that the diagram shall be correct, the motion 
of the drum and paper shall coincide exactly with that 
of the engine piston; second that the position of the pen- 
cil shall precisely indicate the pressure of steam in the 
cylinder; third, that the pendulum must be from i% to 
3 times as long as the stroke of the engine piston; fourth, 
that the pendulum must be plumb when the piston is at 
half-stroke; fifth, that the cord around the drum must be 
attached to the pendulum at right angles, or square with 
the indicator; sixth, the pendulum must be attached with 
an inch wooden pin to the ceiling or floor at one end, the 
other end to the cross-head by means of a screw bolt in 
wrist-pin and a slot in the pendulum; seventh, that the 
two holes tapped in the cylinder are directly opposite the 
steam ports, and centrally between the piston head and 
cylinder head, when the engine is at the dead center, or, 
in other words, in the center of clearance; eighth, that the 
piping should be as short as possible, and }4. inch pipe if 
not over i foot long. If longer the pipe .should be larger 
close to the cylinder, and covered so as not to allow too 
much condensation, as it affects the diagram. The best 
way to take a diagram is to tap a hole in each cylinder- 
head and take each end separately. The cord must be 
attached to the pendulum, so the paper drum will move 
in proportion to the piston. 

An indicator shows the highest and the lowest pressure 
reached, also the cut-off and lead. If there is a great 



66 

difference, say more than 5 pounds, between the boiler 
pressure and the initial pressure upon the piston, the 
connecting pipes may be taken as being too small, too 
abrupt or the steam ports too contracted. The full pres- 
sure of steam should come upon the piston at the very be- 
ginning of its stroke. Should the admission corner be 
rounded, the valve is wanting in "lead," or, in other 
words, the port for the admission of steam is uncovered 
too late in the stroke. 

The steam line shoud be parrailel or straight with the 

atmospheric line up to the point of cut-off, or nearly so. 

(the steam line) fall as the piston advances, the 

openmg tor the admission of steam is insuj6&cient, and the 

steam is *' wire-drawn. ' ' 

The point of cut-off should be sharp and well defined^ 
should it be otherwise, the valve does not close quick 
enough. The bevel line leading from the cut-off line to 
the end of the stroke is called the expansion line. 

Q. Which is the standard indicator ? 

A. The Thompson's improved. 

Q. Are there any other makes ? A. Yes: Richard's, 
McNought's, Tabor's and others. 

RULES, 

Rui,K for telling the power of a diagram: Set down the 
length of the spaces formed by the vertical lines from the 
base in measurements of a scale accompanying the indi- 
cator, and on which a tenth of an inch usually represents a 
pound of pressure; add up the total length of all the 
spaces, which will give the main length, or the main 
pressure upon the piston in pounds per square inch; to 
do this, lay a card taken by the indicator off in ten parts, 
by drawing lines from top to bottom. Find out what the 
scale is; suppose it is 60, the number of ordinates 10, and 



67 

that the sum of their length is 6 inches; so 6 and ip or- 
dinates = 6-io or 6 x 6o = 36.0. Ans. 36 pounds pres- 
sure upon the piston. 

Rui^e; for finding and deducting friction: Multiply N., 
H. P. by .13 and subtract the answer from N. H- P., 
which gives I. H. P. 

Ques. What is N. H. P ? Ans. It is nominal horse- 
power. 

Ques. What is I. H. P ? Ans. It is indicated horse - 
power. 

Ques. What is meant by cutting off steam at 6 inches ? 
Ans. It means that the valve closes and cuts off the 
live steam from the boiler at 6 inches of the piston's 
travel; then the engine gets its power from the time the 
valve closes or cuts off until the exhaust opens by the 
expansion of the steam closed up in the cylinder. 

Standard multiplers, with examples: 

1. For the Area of a Circle. Multiply sq. of diam. by .7854 

2. For Circumference of a Circle, Multiply diameter by 3.1416 

3. For Diameter of a Circle, Multiply the circum. by .31831 

4. For the Surface of a Ball, Multiply sq. of diam. by 3.1416 

5. For the Cubic Inches in a Ball, Multiply cube of dia. by .5236 

1. RuivE for finding the area of any circle. Always 
multiply the diameter by itself, then by .7854, then cut 
off 4 decimals from the right. 

2. Rui,B for finding the circumference of anything 
round. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, and cut 4 deci- 
mals. 

3. Rui/E to find diameter of circle. Multiply circum- 
ference by .31831. 

E)xampi,b: The circumference 9.4248 x .31831 = 
3.000008088 = 3 inches diameter. 

4. Rui,:^ to find the surface of a sphere, globe or ball, 
Exampi,:^: 9 inches diameter x 9 = 8i x 3.1416 = 

254.4696. 



68 



5. Rui^H to find the cuKlc inches in a ball. Multiply 
mbe of the diameter by .5^36 the answer equals its solid 
contents. 

KxAMPi^B: Ball 3 inches in diameter; 3x3 = 9; 9x3 
£= 27 X .5236 =14. 1372 solid contents. 

Ruiy:^ to find pressure on the crown sheet of a hanging 
fire-box boiler. Multiply the width by the length in 
inches, then multiply by steam gauge pressure and di- 
vide by 2. 







EXAMPLE): 


Crown sheet 46 


X33 


, in. 


46 


Pressure 85 lb. 






33 


Iron Yz in. 






1518 




div. 


by 4. 


85 


If iron is % in. 


2)129030 



If iron is Y^ in. div. by 2.66 2000)64515 lbs. pressure. 

32.257 tons ** 



Rui,B to find how much water a boiler will contain. 
For a 2-flue boiler, % full of water, find ^ of the area of 
the boiler in inches inside; multiply by length in inches; 
then find the area of flues, thickness of iron added; then 
multiply by 2, if two flues; multiply by length in inches, 
subtract area of flues from Yz contents and divide by 231 
(number cubic inches in a standard gallon); the answer 
will be the number of U. S. gallons. 



69 





EXAMPLE: 


Boiler 48 inches. 
Two flues, 16 in. 


48 
each. 48 


I^ength 20 feet. 
16 


2304 
.7854 


16 


3)1809.5616 area of Boiler. 


256 

.7854 


603 . 1872 One-third of area. 
2 


201.0624 
2 


1206.3744 Two-thirds of area. 
240 Length in inches. 


402.1248 
240 


289529.8560 
96509.9520 Sub. Area of flues. 


96509.9520 


231)193019-9040 



835.5940 No. of Gallons. 

Rui<K to find the amount of water required, when the 
average pounds of coal used per hour is known. Divide 
the coal by 7.5; the answer will be cubic feet; then mul- 
tiply by 7,5, and that gives the number of U. S. standard* 
gallons. 

EXAMPLE: 
117 lbs. of coal used per hour, 7.5)117.0 



15.6 
7.5 



117.0= 117 gals. 

Ques. How many cubic feet in i Ibo of air ? Ans. 
13.817 cubic feet. 



70 



Ques. How much air does it take to consume i pound 
of coal ? Ans. It takes i8 pounds, or 248.706 cubic feet. 

Ques. How can you tell the water contents of a tank ? 
A.ns. Ifthe tank was large at the bottom and narrow 
at the top, lay the tank off in 10 parts from top to bot- 
tom, then take the diameter 4-10 from the large end of 
the tank, square it, then multiply by .7854; that gives 
the area; then multiply quotient by full depth of tank 
and divide by 1728, which gives the number of cubic feet; 
multiply answer by 7.5, and the number of U. S. gallons 
will be given. The example must be done in inches; 
1728 is the number of inches in a cubic foot; and 7.5 is 
the number of gallons in a cubic foot. 

KXAMPIvH: 

Tank 2 feet diam. 24 inches diameter. 
Tank 3 feet deep, 24 "" ** 



576 

.7854 

452.3904 area in inches. 
36 inches deep. 



1728)16286.0544 



9.4248 cubic feet. 

7.5 No. gals, in a cub. ft. 



70.86000 U. S. gals, in tank. 

Rui,E for chimneys. Chimneys should be round 
instead of square, to insure a good draft. The open- 
ing should be one-fifth larger than the area of the 
flues or tubes combined: if less, the draft will not be 



71 



free. The opening from the bottom should increase* in 
size to the top, and be smooth inside. 

Ques. How could the area of any chimney be known 
for marine or stationary boilers ? Ans. To find the area 
of chimney required for any boiler, multiply the nominal 
horse-power of the boiler by 112, and divide the product 
by the square foot of the height of the chimney in feet. 
The answer will be the required area in square inches. 
For marine boilers the rule is to allow fourteen square 
inches of chimney area for each nominal horse-power. 
In stationary boilers the chimney area should be one- 
fifth greater than the combined area of all the tubes or 
flues. 

Rui<:^ for making good babbitt metal and solders for 
high and low speed, in parts. 

COMPOSITION OF SOLDERS, 

Fine solder is an alloy of two parts of Block Tin and 
one part of lead. Glazing Solder is equal parts of Block' 
Tin and Lead. Plumbing Solder, one part block Tin, 
two parts Lead. 

SoivDKRiNG FivUiD : — Take 2 oz. muriatic acid, add 
zinc till bubbles cease to rise, add ^ teaspoonful of sal- 
ammoniac. 



HIGH SPEKD. 


COMMON. 


MEDIUM. 


Martin's Nickel. 10 


Copper 


1 
12 

1 
100 


Copper . 


60 


Copper 


16 

4 
70 

100 


Antimony 

Tin 


Antimony 

Tin 


25 


Antimony 

Tin 


IS 


















100 



72 

Rui.^ for babbitting a box. Nearly every engineer has 
his own way; but the best and quickest way is to chip 
out all the old babbitt in the cap and box, then put the 
journal or shaft that is to run in the box in its place; put 
enough liners in between the shaft or journal and 
edge of box until level, square and in line, put thick 
putty around the shaft and against the box, so the bab- 
bitt can not run out; then heat the babbitt until it runs 
free, and pour accordingly; the cap is then bolted in its 
place upon ^^ inch thick liner, and putty placed as be- 
fore; then pour metal through the oil holes which will 
have to be drilled out afterwards. 

To Avoid Burning Babbitt M^tai,: — When melt- 
ing it for journal bearings, cut part of it into small 
pieces to cover the bottom of ladle . The block will 
then be heated evenly instead of being raised to a high 
temperature at the points of* contact with the ladle, 
which will often become heated to redness before the 
bulk of the babbitt melts. 

RuivE to determine the capacity of any size pump, sin- 
gle or double action. Multiply the area of the water 
piston-head face or plunger in inches, by its stroke in in- 
ches, which gives the number of cubic inches per single 
stroke; the answer divided by 231 (the cubic inches in a 
gallon) will give the number of standard gallons per sin- 
gle stroke. But remember, all pumps throw less water 
than their capacity, which depends upon the conditon and 
quality of the pump. This loss arises from the rise and 
fall of the valves; from a bad fit or leakage, and in some 
cases from there being too much space between the valves, 
piston or plunger. The higher the valves have to rise to 
give the proper opening, the less work the pump will 
perform. 



73 



FRICTION OF WATER IN PIPES. 

I^oss IN Pounds Pressure per Squarb Inch by Friction ^«»4 
EACH One Hundred Feet of Straight Smooth Pip\, 



Oals. 

per 
Mm. 



5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 
35 
40 

45 
50 
75 

TOO 
125 
150 
175 
200 
250 
300 
350 
400 
450 
500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1000 
1250 

1500 , 

2000 

2500 

3000 

3500 

4000 



SIZ-:^ OF PIPK3. 



X in. i^ 



0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.3 
19.0 

27.5 
37.0 



0.12 
0.47 
0.97 
1.66 
2.62 

3-75 
505 
6.52 

8.15 
10. 
22.4 

39. 
.1 



0.12 
0.27 
0.42 
0.67 
0.91 
1.26 
1.60 
2.01 
2.44 
532 
9.46 

14.9 

21.2 

28.1 

37-5 

47.7 



2Y^ 



0.21 
0.30 
0.42 

o.6i 
0.81 
1.80 

3-20 

4.89 

7.00 

9.46 
12.47 

19.66 
28.06 

33.41 
42.96 



0.14 
0.17 
0.27 

0.35 

0.74 

1. 31 
1.99 

2.85 
3.85 

5.02 

7.76 

II. 2 
152 
19.5 
25.0 
30.8 



0.09 
0.21 

0.33 
0.51 
0.69 

0-95 
1.22 
1.89 
2.66 
3-65 
4-73 
6.01 

7.43 

9.54 

14.32 



6 

0.05 
0.07 

O.IO 

0.14 
0.17 
0.26 

0.37 
0.50 
0.65 
o.8i 
0.96 
1.41 

a 

3.88 


8 

0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
0.06 
0.09 

O.II 

0.15 
0.20 

0.38 
0.47 
0.61 
0.78 

1.46 
2.09 


10 
.... 

0.01 
0.02 
0.03 
0.05 
0.06 
0.08 
0.09 
0.14 
0.18 
0.22 
0.27 
0.32 
0.49 
0.70 
1.23 


12 

0.005 

0.007 

0.01 

0.02 

0.04 

0.07 

008 

0.09 

O.II 

0.13 

0.20 
0.29 
0.49 
0.77 
I. II 



M 



004 
005 
008 
017 

026 

034 
045 
055 

062 
091 

135 
234 
362 
515 

597 
910 



The friction loss is greatly increased by bends or irreg- 
ularities in the pipe. 



74 



TABI,K SHOWING GAI,I,ONS OF WAT^R DISCHARGED IN 

FIRE STREAMS THROUGH lOO Ft. OF 2j^-INCH RUBBER 

HOSE WITH GIVEN NOZZI^ES (Smooth). 









, 






.4_l 


u 


, 




•So; 




S.S 




sa 


(U 


S^^ 


rn -^ 


"Sa 


ga 






25 
5R 




.2 ij 

>C0 




1 


o.S 






•|8 




30 


134 


90 


62 


~H 


7^ 


259 


163 


125 




40 


155 


109 


76 


iH 


80 


277 


175 


137 




50 


173 


126 


94 


1/8 


90 


294 


186 


148 




60 


189 


142 


108 


1/8 


100 


310 


193 


157 




70 


205 


156 


121 


^H 


30 


210 


96 


63 




80 


219 


168 


131 


'H 


40 


242 


118 


82 




90 


232 


178 


140 


iVa 


50 


271 


138 


99 




100 


245 


186 


148 


iV, 


60 


297 


156 


115 


iH 


30 


170 


93 


63 


^H 


70 


320 


172 


129 


1% 


40 


- 196 


113 


81 


^H 


80 


342 


186 


142 


1/8 


50 


219 


132 


97 


^H 


90 


3^^ 


198 


154 


iH 


60 


240 


148 


112 


154 


100 


383 


207 


164 



Ques. Will a boiler 60 inches in diameter, ^ inch 
iron, stand as much pressure as a boiler 48 inch diameter 
}i inch iron? Ans. No. 

Ques. Why ? Ans. Because the pressure in the 
boiler has more surface, and will not allow it. It is the 
the same as a long bar and a short bar of the same thick- 
ness; it takes less strain to break the long one than the 
short one. 

Rui^E for finding safe working pressure of steam boilers 
Always use .56 for single riveted and .70 for double riveted 
side seams. A radius means }i the diameter and ^ of 
tensile strength is safe load. U. S. Standard is J/^. 

Multiply the thickness of iron by single or double riv- 
ets, then multiply by the safe load, divide by internal 
radius, and the answer will be the safe working pressure. 



75 



Diam. 42 in. 
Iron ^g in. 



EXAMPLE: 

. 1875 thickness of iron, 
.70 double riveted. 



Double riveted 

50,000 lbs. tensile strength 



131250 

lOOOO 



2)42 



20.8125)13125000.00 ^T outside 

radius. 



Safe working pressure, 



Bursting pressure, 



63.06 



.1875 

20.8125 is^. 



315.30 



" Rui^K to find the aggregate strain caused by the pres- 
sure of steam on the shells of boilers. Multiply the cir- 
cumference in inches by the length in inches; fnultiply 
this answer by the pressure in pounds. The result will 
be the pressure on the shell of boiler, and divide by 
2000, which gives the tons. 

BXAMPI^B: 

Diam. of boiler 48 inches, circumference 150.7968, length 
20 feet, or 240 inches, pressure of steam 120 lbs, 150.- 
7968x240 X 120 — 4342947.8400 Ibs.y divided by 2000 
— 2I7I/X tons strain. 

KvitH to find the number of feet of i inch pipe required 
to heat any size room with steam. For direct radiation 
I lineal foot (straight foot) to 25 cubic feet of space. For 
indirect radiation, i lineal foot to 15 cubic feet of space. 
Note, all pipe is measured inside for size 

KXAMPIyB. 
Room 18 X 18 X 18 to be heated with i inch pipe. Di- 
rect radiation. All circulating must be done in inches, 
and divided by 1728 to find the cubic feet 



76 

2l6 

216 

46656 
216 



1728)10077696 cubic inches. 



25)5832 cubic feet 



lyineal 233/5 f^^t of i inch pipe. 



One cubic foot of boiler is required for every 1500 ci^bic 
feet of space to be warmed. One horse power of boiler 
is enough for 40,000 cubic feet of space. 

RuivK to find the horse-power of boilers. Always find 
the number of square inches and divide by 144, which 
gives the square feet of heating surface, and divide by 15 
square feet for flue boilers, 12 sq. feet for tubular, and 7 sq. 
feet for cylinder boilers, which is an average allowance 
for one horse power of boilers; divide the H, P. by 2, 
you will have the proper grate surface, and allow yi sq. 
inch of safety valve to each square foot of grate surface. 
Generally, from }^ to ^ of a square foot of grate surface 
is allowed to each horse power of a boiler. 

The H. P. of a boiler is to some extent a misnomer. It 
is the engine which furnishes the H. P. ; the boiler furn- 
ishes the steam to make it. A high-grade compound 
condensing engine will develop a H. P. with fifteen 
pounds of steam per hour; an ordinary non-condensing 
mill engine requires thirty. The engines of Watt's time 
required sixty or more. A boiler which would furnish 
3000 lbs. of steam per hour would with the last class of 
engine, produce fifty H. P.; with a non-condensing en- 
gine, one hundred H. P. ; and with a compound engine, 



77 

two-hundred H. P. Watt, basing the estimate upon the 
consumption of his engines, established the rule of a 
cubic foot of water per H. P. per hour, but the accepted 
standard at present, based upon the consumption of the 
average non-condensing mill engine, is thirty pounds of 
water from feed water at ioo° F. into steam at seventy 
pounds gauge pressure; equivalent to thirty-four and a 
half pounds of water evaporated from an atd 212° F. 

A common custom among boiler makers has led to the 
rating of boilers by horse-powers, and while no special 
harm has come of this, yet it is evidently a misnomer as 
applied to a boiler, separate and apart from an engine, 
for the simple reason that a boiler of a capacity suited to 
a 100 horse power Corliss engine, would only produce 
about 60 H. P. if attached to a slide valve engine cutting 
off at four-fifths of its stroke. In the first instance, 3 
gallons of water evaporated per hour, produce one horse- 
power, and in the second, 5 gallons are necessary. To 
add to the confusion produced by these differences we 
have another unsettled quantity in the rating of boiler 
power; namely, the amount of heating surface necessary 
to a horse-power. The range of difference varies from 10 
to 15 square feet, and practice shows that either may be 
right. For the amount of draft, or intensity of the heat 
in the furnace will determine this, as, for example, 
the heat is so great in a locomotive fire-box when the 
exhaust is strong, that 8 square feet or less of that sur- 
face produces a horse-power, and the consumption of 
coal may run as high as 50 pounds to a square foot of 
grate surface per hour, while in many furnaces it is 
reduced to 10 lbs. 

From so wide a range in the amount of heating surface 
and the difference in the consumption of fuel by forced 



78 

draft, it is evident that when boiler capacity is increased 
in this way it is done at the expense of fuel. 

If we are to make this matter of economy a considera- 
tion in the production of steam power, then the true 
measure of efficiency in a boiler must be its ability to 
evaporate the greatest amount of water with the least 
amount of coal or other fuel. The very best results at- 
tained in common practice is lo pounds of water evapora- 
ted with I lb. of coal, but 8 lbs. is usually satisfactory. 

All these varying conditions get us into a dilemma 
when we come to propose a standard unit for boiler ca- 
pacity, and as has been said of the jury system, we should 
let it alone until we can propose something better than 
horse-powers. We think good may result from drawing 
a well defined line between the source of power, the 
boiler, and the means of application of this power, the 
steam engine. They are too often treated as a whole, and 
as a result good or bad performance cannot be accurately 
located. 

Appliances are now being introduced for determining 
the efficiency of boilers, but much remains to be done to 
simplify them so as to be of general utility. 

Rui,:^ to find the horse-power generated in any kind of 
boiler when running. First, notice how long it will take 
to evaporate one inch of water in the glass gauge, divide 
this into 60, which gives the number of inches evaporated 
in one hour; second^ multiply the average diameter 
where evaporation took place by the length of the boiler 
in inches; this multiplied by the number of inches evap- 
orated, and the answer divided by 1728 gives the cubic 
feet of water evaporated in one hour. 

As a rule, i cubic foot of water evaporated is generally 
allowed for one horse-power; also the capacity of a pump 
or injector for any boiler should deliver one cubic foot of 



79 



water each horse power per hour, and an engine uses one- 
third of a cubic foot of water per horse power* 



EXAMPLE: 



Length of boiler 216 inches. 
Average diam. 40 inches. 



216 
40 



One inch evaporated in 15 min. 8640 15)60 

4 4 



1728)34560(20 horse power. 



Weight of Sq. Superficial Foot of Boiler 
Plate when Thickness is Known. 



THICKNESS. 


WKIGHT. 


THICKNESS. 


WEIGHT. 


Inc'ies. Dec. 


lbs. 


Inches. Dec. 

1 


lbs. 


sS = -03125 


1.25 


A = -3125 


12.58 


^^ = .0625 


2.519 


i = .375 


15.10 


s% = .0937 


3.788 


/e = -4375 


17.65 


h = -125 


5.054 


4 = .5 


20.20 


#2 = .1562 


6.305 


1^6 = .5625 


22.76 


i% = .1875 


7.578 


1 = -625 


25.16 


/2 = -2187 


8.19 


1 = .75 


30.20 


i =.25 


10.09 


1 = .875 


3530 


h = 2812 


11.38 


I == .1 


40.40 



Ques. Explain how the above fractional parts of whole 
numbers are made to read as decimals — take ^q of an 
m. for an example ? Ans. To do this take 100 as a whole 
number; divide 16 into 100 ^= 6^, reads .625 = ^^^ ot 
TOO. ^Q would read, 3 x .625 = .1875. This principle 
answers for all the rest. 



8o 



WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF EARTH. 
STONE. lYIETAU &C. 



Article 



Lbs. 



Alcohol. ... 4 ... » 49 

Ash Wood . 53 

Bay Wood 51 

Brass, gun metal 543 

Brandy 58 

Beer 65 

Blood 66 

Brick, commen ...». 102 

Cork ♦ 15 

Cedar 35 

Copper, cast 547 

Copper, plates 543 

Clay 120 

Coal, Lehigh 56 

Coal, Lackawanna 50 

Cider 64 

Chestnut 38 

Ebony 83 

Earth, loose 94 

Glass, Window 165 

Gold 1,203% 

Hickory, pig-nut 49 

Hickory, shell-bark 43 

Hay, bale 9 

Hay, pressed 25 

Honey 90 

Iron, cast 450 

Iron, plates 481 

Iron, wrought bars 486 

Ice 57^ 

Lignum Vitse Wood 83 

Logwood 57 



Article. 



Lbs. 



Lead, cast 709 

Lead, rolled 711 

Milk 64 

Maple 47 

Mortar no 

Mud >.. 102 

Marble, Italian 169 

Marble, Vermont 165 

Mahogany 66 

Oak, Canadian 54 

Oak. live, seasoned 67 

Oak, white, dry 54 

Oil, linseed 59 

Pine, yellow 34 

Pine, white 34 

Pine, red 37 

Pin e, well seasoned 30 

Platina 1,219 

Red Hickory 52 

Silver 625)^ 

Steel, plates 487^ 

Steel, soft 489 

Stone, common, about 158 

Sand, wet, about 128 

Spruce 31 

Tin 455 

Tar 63 

Vinegar 67 

Water, salt 64 

Water, rain 62 

Willo-v 36 

Zinc, cast 428 



Rule for safety valves. To find the distance, ball 
should be placed on lever, when the weight is known, or 
the distance is known and the weight is not known. 
Multiply the pressure required by area of valve, multiply 
the pressure required by area of valve, multiply the an- 
swer by the fulcrum; subtract the weight of the lever, 
v«lve and stem, and divide by the weight of ball for dis- 
tance, or divide by distance for weight of ball with the 
same example as follows: 



8i 

EXAMPLE: 

Weight of ball, 60 lbs. . 100 lbs. pressure. 

Pressure, ^ 100 *• 3 area of valve. 

Wt. of L. V. & steam, 30 '' 300 

Fulcrum, 4 inch, 4 fulcrum. 

Area of valve, 3 " 1200 

30 wt. of Iv. V. & St. 

60)1170 



1(^)4 inch ball should 
be hung on lever. 

The mean eflfective weight of valve, lever, and stem is 
found by connecting the lever at fulcrum, tie the valve- 
stem to lever with a string, attach a spring scale to lever 
immediately over valve, and raise until the valve is clear 
of its seat which will give the mean effective weight of 
lever, valve and stem. 

RuivE for figuring the safety valve and to know the 
pressure when the area of valve, the weight of lever, 
valve and stem, the distance the fulcrum is from valve, 
and weight of ball is known. 

Divide fulcrum into length of lever, multiply answer 
by weight of ball, add weight of lever, valve and stem, 
divide by area of valve. Answer will be steam pressure. 



Weight of ball, 50 lbs. 2 . 25 


4)20 


Wt. of L. V. & stem, 30 lbs. 2.25 
Fulcrum, 4 in. 5.0625 


5 

50 


Diam. of valve, 2;^ in. .7854 


250 


Length of lever, 20 in. 3.97608750 area. 


30 



Add as many ciphers to the dividend as 3.9)280.0 
there are decimals in the divisor, and lbs. press. 71. |^ 
divide as whole nxmxhfj^^ 
6 



82 



Tto measure or mark off the lever, you measure the ful- 
crum and make notches the same distance as fulcrum; if 
fulcrum is 4 inches, each notch must be 4 inches apart. 

Ques. What is meant by a fulcrum ? Ans. The dis- 
tance valve stem is from where the lever is connected. 

SCREW CUTTING LATHE. 



FOR CUTTING ANY SIZ^ THRE:aD. 

POINTS FOR MACHINISTS. 

RuiyK TO Gear a Lath^ for Scrkw-Cutting.— 
Kvery screw cutting lathe contains a long screw called 
the lead screw, which feeds the carriage of the lathe 
while cutting screws; upon the end of this screw is 
placed a gear to which is transmitted motion from 
another gear placed on the end of the spindle; these gears 
each contain a different number of teeth, for the purpose 
of cutting different threads, and the threads are cut a 
certain number to the inch, varying from one to fifty. 
Therefore, to find the proper gears to cut a certain num- 
ber of threads to the inch, you will first multiply the 
number of threads you desire to cut to the inch by any 
small number, 4 for instance, and this will give you the 



83 

proper gear to put on the lead screw. Then with the 
same number, 4, multiply the number of tkreads to the 
inch in the lead screw, and this will give you the proper 
gear to put on the spindle. For example, if you want to 
cut 12 to the inch, multiply 12 by 4, and it will give you 
48. Put this gear on the lead screw, then with the same 
number 4, multiply the number of threads to the inch in 
the lead screw. If it is 5, for instance, it will give you 
20; put this on the spindle and your lathe is geared. If 
the lead screw is 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8, the same rule holds good. 
Always multiply the number of threads to be cut first. 

Some — indeed, most small lathes — are now made with 
a stud geared into the spindle, which stud only runs half 
as fast as the spindly, and in finding the gears for these 
lathes you will first multiply the number of threads to be 
cut, as before, and then multiply the number of threads 
on the lead screw as double the number it is. For in- 
stance, if you want to cut 10 to the inch, multiply by 4, 
and you get 40; put this on the lead screw, then, if your 
lead screw is 5 to the inch, you call it 10, and multiply 
by 4, and it will give you 40. Put this on your stud and 
your lathe is geared, ready for cutting. 

K\j-L,n '^OK Cutting A Scri^w in an Engine Lathe;. 
— In cutting V-thread screws, it is only necessary for you 
to practice operating the shipper and slide screw- 
handle of your lathe before cutting. After having done 
this until you get the motions, you may set the point of 
the tool as high as the center, and if you keep the tool 
sharp you will find no difficulty in cutting screws. You 
must, however, cut very light chips, mere scrapings in 
finishing, and must take it out of the lathe often, and 
look at it from both sides very carefully, to see that the 
threads do not lean like fish scales. After cutting, polish 
with a stick and some emery and oil. 



84 

RuiyE FOR Cutting Square Thread Screws. — In 
cutting square thread screws, it is always necessary t© 
get the depth required with a tool somewhat thinner than 
one-half the pitch of the thread, after doing this make 
another tool exactly the pitch of the thread and use it to 
finish with cutting a slight chip on each side of the 
groove. After doing this, polish with a pine stick and 
some emery. Square threads for strength should be cut 
one-half the depth of their pitch, while square threads for 
wear, may — and should be — cut three-fourths the depth 
of their pitch. 

RuivE FOR MONGRKi. Threads. — Mongrel, or half V 
half square threads, are usually made for great wear, and 
should be cut the depth of their pitch, and for extraor- 
dinary wear they may be cut i% the depth of the pitch. 
The point and the bottom of the grooves should be in 
width % ttiG depth of their pitch. What is meant here 
by the point of the thread is the outside surface, and the 
bottom of the groove is the groove between the threads. 
In cutting these threads, it is proper to use a tool the 
shape of the thread, and in thickness about ^ less than 
the thread is when finished. As it is impossible to cut 
the whole surface, at once, you will cut it in depth about 
j^ at a time then a chip off the sides of the thread, and 
continue in this way alternately till you have arrived at 
the depth required. Make a guage of the size required 
between the threads and finish by scraping with water. 
It is usually best to leave such screws as these a little large 
until after they are cut, and then turn off a light chip 
to size them; this leaves them true and nice. 

Recipes to Temper T001.S Used Daii<y, Such as 
CHISE1.S, Taps, Dies, Reamers, Twist Drii.i.s, Com- 
mon Fi,AT DRII.1.S, AND IvATHE T001.S, — To temper flat, 
cape or side chisels, and common flat drills, put the tool 



85 

to be tempered in the fire and heat slowly to a cherry red 
color, about 4 inches from the point. Then take it out 
and put it in the water, point first, about three or four 
inches, then draw it back quick about an inch from the 
point, and leave it so until the water will barely dry on 
the chisel, then take it out, polish it with a piece of sand 
stone, and let the heat that is left in the body of the tool 
force its way toward the point; it will be noticed imme- 
diately in the change of color. The color of temper for 
chisels to cut cast iron should be a dark straw, turning to 
a blue. The temper of chisels to cut wrought iron or steel 
should be plunged into water after the dark straw color 
has disappeared and the blue begins to show itself, and 
left in the water to cool off. In some cases, where the 
tool is too cold and the temper will not draw, put the 
tool in and out of the fire often, until the temper shows 
itself, then cool immediately. If the temper getsrto the 
point of tool before it is polished, it will have to be 
heated over again. The above rule answers for lathe, 
planer and shaper tools as well. 

Steel tools are given a diamond-like hardness by Ger- 
man engravers who make them white hot, stick them 
into sealing wax repeatedly until cold, and then touch 
them with oil of turpentine. 

To temper files very hard. Take water 2 measures — 
^o matter what size — wheat flour j4 measure, and i 
measure of common salt. Directions. Mix into a paste; 
heat the steel to be hardened enough to coat with the 
paste by immersing it in the composition — after which 
heat the tool to a cherry red, and plunge it in cold, soft 
water. If properly done, the steel will be very hard. 

To anneal steel is to heat it and bury it in hot ashes 
and leave it cool with the ashes. Another quick way is 



86 

to heat it then let it cool to dark color, then plunge into 
water. 

Taps, dies, reamers and twist drills should be tempered 
in oil. After being heated to a cherry red all over equally, 
drop the tool in a bucket of oil (plumb) and leave it there 
imtil cold; then take it out and brighten it with emery 
cloth; be careful not to drop it, because it is brittle and 
liable to break. To draw the temper of taps, reamers 
and twist drills, heat a heavy ring red hot and enter the 
tool centrally in the ring, so the heat will be equal from 
all sides. The hole in the ring should be about three 
times the diameter of the tool. An old pulley hub would 
be about right. The color for reamers, taps and twist 
drills should be dark straw, turning to a blue near the 
shank; where the color is changing too fast, drop a little 
water on it; after the right color is obtained, cool off in 
water. To draw the temper in dies after being cooled in 
oil, set them (the threads up) on a piece of red-hot iron 
and draw temper the same color as taps. 

For tempering a spring, heat it cherry red, and put it 
in oil; after it is cool, take it out and hc>ld it over the fire 
until the oil burns off; then put the spring in the oil' 
again, then in the fire; do this three times; after the last 
time plunge it into water and cool off. 

The United States Government Tempering 
Secret and durability to the poorest kind of steel.' 
Siegfried's specification reads as follows: "first heat the 
steel to a cherry red, in a clean smith's fire, and then 
cover the steel with common salt, purifying the fire also 
by throwing in salt. Work the steel in this condition, 
and while subjected to this txeatment, until it is brought 
into nearly its, finished form-. Then substitute for the 
salt a compound composed of the following ingredients 



87 

and in about the following proportions: One part by 
weight of each of the following substances; salt, sul- 
phate of copper, sal-ammoniac and sal-soda, together 
with yi part by weight of pure saltpeter, said ingre- 
dients being pulverized and mixed; alternately heat the 
steel and treat it by covering with this mixture and ham- 
mering it until it is thoroughly refined and brought into 
its finished form. Then return it to the fire, and heat it 
slowly to a cherry red, and then plunge it into a bath 
composed of the following ingredients, in substantially 
the following proportions for the required quantity; of 
rain water, i gal. ; alum, sal-soda, sulphate of copper, of 
each i^ ozs; saltpeter, i oz., and of salt, 6 ozs. These 
quantities and proportions are stated as being practically 
the best, but it is manifest that they may be slightly 
changed without departing from the principles of my 
invention.'* 



DIRECTIONS FOR JOINING BANDSAWS 

The following directions for joining band saws are 
given by the Defiance Machine Works: 

Bevel each end of saw the length of two teeth. Make 
a good joint. Fasten the saw in brazing clamps with the 
backs against the shoulder, and wet the joint with solder- 
water, or with a creamy mixture made by rubbing a lump 
of borax in about a teaspoonful of water on a slate. Put 
in the joint a piece of silver solder the full size thereof, 
and clamp with tongs heated to a light red (not white) 
heat. As soon as the solder fuses blacken the tongs with 
water and take them off. Remove the saw, hammer it if 
necessary, and file down to an even thickness, finishing 
by draw-filing lengthwise. 



88 



THE CORLISS ENGINE. 




ADJUSTMENT AND SETTING OF THE 
OORLISS ENGINE VALVES. 

It often happens that engineers, under whose control 
Corliss engines are placed, are not practically acquainted 
with the operation of the Corliss valve gear, and are at a 
loss what to do should the gear need adjustment. By 
carefully observing the following questions and answers, 
the desired information will be found. 

Ques. Into how many classes are the different types 
,of Corliss valve gear divided? Ans. Into two general 
classes. 

Ques. Which are they? Ans. To the first class 
belong the crab-claw gear. To the second class belong 
the half-moon valve gear. 

Ques. Which is the more favorable and widely known 
type now in general use ? Ans. The half-moon type. 

Ques. Why so? Ans. Because the old style crab- 
tlaw steam valve opens toward the center of the cylinder, 
which obstructs the supply passage and forces the steam 



89 

, to pass over and around the valves. This fault is over- 
come in the half moon type, as the steam valve opens 
away from the center of the cylinder, thus leaving a clear 
and direct passage for the steam into the cylinder. 

Ques. Do the two different styles make any difference 
into the opening of the exhaust valves? Ans. No. 
The difference in the two classes is simply in the direc- 
tion of movement of steam valves; the exhaust valves 
open the same in either class, viz. : away from the center 
of the cylinder. 

Ques. What name has the Corliss valve gear? Ans. 
It is called a detachable valve gear. 

Ques. Why is it called detachable ? Ans. Because 
the steam valves open positively at the proper time by 
the direct action of the working parts of the engine, and 
continue to open until the connection with the working 
parts of the engine are broken by detaching or tripping 
the hook, by action of the cut-off cams. 

Ques. How are the steam valves closed ? Ans. When 
the steam valves are detached they are closed by the 
action of springs, weights, or more generally vacuum 
dash pots, thus cutting off the supply of steam. 

Ques. How is the detachment or tripping deter- 
mined? Ans. The time in the stroke at which the trip- 
ping takes place is known by the position of the cut off 
cams, which are moved and controlled by the governor. 

Ques. Dees the cut-off cams trip the hook always at 
the same point ? Ans. No. The cut-off is determined 
by the requirements of the load on the engine. 

Ques. By what name is this cut-off known? Ans. 
The automatic cut-off. 

Ques. How is the theory of the Corliss valve motioi^ 
easily understood ? Ans. The theory is easily under- 



90 

stood by considering the four valves as the four parts (or 
edges) of a common slide valve, 

Ques. Why are the four valves of the Corliss engine 
considered as the four parts (or edges) of the common 
slide valve ? Ans. The working edges of th'i two steam 
valves answering as the two steam edges of the slide 
valve, and the working edges of the two exhaust valves 
as the exhaust edges of the slide valve. 

Ques. The Corliss having four valves, and the com- 
mon slide valve only one, does it not make any difference 
in setting ? Ans. As far as the setting the principle is 
the same; the only difference is in the adjustment. 

Ques. Why does the adjustment make a difference? 
Ans. The four working edges of the common slide valve 
are in one solid valve, so that any change or adjustment 
of.one of the edges interferes with the other three. If 
one edge is to be changed in reference to the others, it 
must be done by altering the valve itself. The Corliss 
valves, on the other hand, are adjustable, each by itself, 
and any one of the valves may be changed without dis- 
turbing the other three. 

Ques. Can the adjustment be made while running? 
Ans, When the engineer is familiar with his engine and 
knows what changes are necessary, the adjustment may 
be, and is frequently made without stopping the engine. 

Ques. How many edges has a slide valve? Ans. 
Four — two steam and two exhaust. 

Ques. Have the Corliss valves the same number of 
edges? Ans. No. Each Corlisss valve represents an 
edge of the common slide valve, viz. : two steam edges, 
two steam valves, two exhaust edges, two exhaust valves. 

Ques. How are the valves connected to the eccentric 
and worked on the Corliss engines? Ans. With the 
wrist-plate, carrier arm, rocker arm, and reach rod. 



91 

Ques. Is the wrist-plate good for any other purpose ? 
AtiS. Yes. It modifies the speed of travel at different 
parts of the stroke, in relation to each other, and gives 
a quick and constantly increasing speed when opening 
the steam valves, and a quick opening and closing of the 
exhaust valves. 

Ques. When do the steam and exhaust valves travel 
slowest ? Ans. When they are closed. 

Ques. Can the valves of Corliss engines be adjusted 
when the reach rod is unhooked from the wrist-plate, so 
the valves may be properly set, independent of the posi- 
tion of the crank ? Ans. Yes. 

Ques. Are the Corliss valves easily set ? Ans. If the 
engineer has any knowledge, as he should have, of the 
ordinary slide valve, and of the effect of ^lap and lead," 
as applied to its workings, and will consider the Corliss 
valve gear in the light of this knowledge, he will soon 
master the seeming difficulties in his way and find the 
Corliss gear to be the simplest, most perfect and most 
easily adjusted of all valve motions. 

Ques. How would you go about setting the Corliss 
valves? Ans. Begin by taking off the black caps or 
black heads of all four valve chambers. Guide lines will 
be found on the ends of the valves and on the ends of 
the chambers, as follows: On the steam valves, coincid- 
ing with the working edges of the valves; on the steam 
valve chamber, coinciding with the working edges of the 
steam ports. On the exhaust valves and ports, guide 
lines are also scribed to set them by. The wrist-plate is 
centrally between the four valve chambers on the valve 
gear side of the cylinder. A well defined line will be 
found on the stand which is bolted to the cylinder, and 
three lines on the hub of the wrist-plate, which, when 
they conicide with the line on the stand, show the central 



92 

position of the wrist-plate and the extremes of its throw 
or travel. To adjust the valves, first unhook the reach 
rod connecting wrist-plate with rocker arm and place 
and hold the wrist-plate in its central position. The 
connecting rods between steam and exhaust valve arms 
and wrist-plate are made with right and left hand screw 
threads on their opposite ends, and provided with jamb 
nuts, so that by slacking the jamb nuts and turning the 
rod they can be lengthened or shortened as desired. By 
means of this adjustment, set the steam valves so that 
they will have % inch lap for lo inch diameter of cylin- 
der, and % inch lap for 32 inch diameter of cylinder, and 
for intermediate diameters in proportion. 

For the exhaust, set them with 1-16 inch lap for 10 
inch bore, and J inch lap for 32 inch bore on non-con- 
densing engines and nearly double this amount on con- 
densing engines, for good results. Lap on the steam 
and exhaust valves will be shown by the lines on the 
valves being nearer the center of the cylinder than the 
lines on the valve chambers. Having made this adjust- 
ment of the valves, the rods connecting the steam valve 
arms with the dash pots should be adjusted by turning 
the wrist plate to its extremes of travel and adjusting the 
rod so that when it is down as far as it will go, the sq. 
steel block on the valve arm will just clear the shoulder 
on the hook. If the rod is left too long, the steam valve 
stem will be likely to be either bent or broken; if too 
short, the hook will not engage, and consequently the 
valve will not open. Having adjusted the valves as 
stated, hook the engine in and with the eccentric loose 
on the shaft, turn it over and adjust the eccentric rod so 
that the wrist-plate will have the correct extremes of 
travel, as indicated by the lines on back of hub of wrist- 
plate. Then place the crank on either dead center and 



93 

turn the eccentric in the direction in which the engine is 
to run to show an opening at the steam valve of from 
3^2 to J inch, depending upon the speed the engine is to 
run. This opening will be shown by the line on the 
valve being nearer the end of the cylinder than the line 
on the valve chamber. This opening gives the "lead" or 
port opening when the engine is on the dead center. 
The faster the engine is to run the more lead it requires, 
as a general rule. Having turned the eccentric so as to 
secure the desired amount of lead, tighten it securely, by 
means of the set screw, and turn the engine over to the 
other center, and note if the other steam valve has the 
same lead. If not, adjust by lengthening or shortening 
the connecting rod to the wrist-plate as the case may be 
necessary to do. 

If the engine has the half-moon, crab-claw, or other 
gear which opens the valves toward the center of the cyl- 
inder, the manner fo the adjustment will be the same, ex- 
cept that the "lap" on the steam valves will be shown 
when the line on the steam valve is nearer the end of the 
cylinder, and the "lead" when this line is nearer the 
center of the cylinder than the line on the valve chamber. 
The adjustment of the exhaust valves and the amount of 
"lap" and "lead" will be the same in either case. 

To adjust the rods connecting the cut-off or tripping 
cams with the governor, have the governor at rest, and 
the wrist-plate at one extreme of its travel. Then adjust 
the rod connecting with the cut-off cam on the opposite 
steam valve so that the cams will clear the steel on the 
tail of the hook about ^^ inch. Turn the wrist-plate to 
*he opposite extreme of travel and adjust. the cam for the 
other valve in the same manner. To equalize the cut-off 
and test its correctness, hook th^ engine in and block the 
p;overnor up about i% inch, which will bring it io its 



94 

average position when running. Then turn the engine 
slowly, in the direction in which it is to run, and note the 
distance the cross-h-^ad has traveled from its extreme 
position at dead center when the cut-ofF cam trips or de- 
taches the steam valve. Continue to turn the engine be- 
yond the other dead center and note the distance of 
cross-heads from its extreme of travel when the valve 
drops. If the distance is the same as when the other 
valve dropped the cut-ofFis equal. If not, adjust either 
one or the other of the rods until the distances are the 
same. 

By following these directions the engine will do good 
work, but to know just what it is doing the engineer 
should use the indicator often. No engine room is com- 
plete without a good indicator, and no engineer can be 
well posted as to what his engine is doing and keep it in 
its best possible condition for good work without having 
an indicator and using it often. 



THE DYNAMO. 

Ques. What is a Dynamo? Ans. A Dynamo is a 
machine in which Electricity is gathered and forced out 
through wires for lighting, electro-painting, etc. 

Ques. What does a Dynamo consist of? Ans. A 
Dynamo consists of a field, frame, armature, commutator, 
brushes, brush holders, pins for the brush holder, and a 
quadrant. 

Ques. What is meant by a field? Ans. It means the 
magnets connected to the frame with bolts. 

Ques. What are magnets? Ans. Magnets are iron 
cores, wound with insulated wire. These magnets are 
called electro-magnets because they become magnetic 
only when a current passes through the wire. 



95 




0. & C. DYNAMO. 

MoDOUGALL & CXJMMINGS, 
Chicago. 



9b 

Ques. How is the current generated ? Ans. By the 
rotary motion of the armature between the poles of the 
magnet. 

Ques. What does an armature consist of? Ans. It 
consists of a steel or iron shaft, around which* insulated 
wire is wound, the shaft having a 6 or 8 inch bearing at 
each end. 

Ques. How is this current conducted to the lamps ? 
Ans. By means of brushes made out of copper strips 
of wires about 6 or 8 inches long, soldered together at one 
end and held on the commutator by means of brush hold- 
ers made out of brass. These holders are on long pins, 
the pins are nutted to a quadrant and the quadrant is 
fastened to a frame. 

Ques. How many brushes are there generally, and 
where are they ? Ans. There are 2 and 4 brushes, two 
oil one side of the commutator and two directly opposite, 
according to size of machine. 

Ques. What is a commutator ? Ans. A commutator 
is made out of segments of copper and segments of insu- 
lation. 

Ques. Can a commutator be taken off when worn 
out? Ans. Yes. 

Ques. How is it generally done ? Ans. By taking out 
the brushes, brush holders, the pins and the armature 
from the dynamo, then place the two ends of the shaft 
on wooden horses, mark the wires connecting the arma- 
ture and commutator by attaching numbered tags (so as 
to place them, when the new commutator is put on) then 
disconnect the wires between the commutator and arma- 
ture and take off the commutator from the shaft. 

Ques. How should a dynamo be looked after and run ? 
Ans. See that the machine is clean, journals cool, and 
that the proper speed is kept up; see that the brushes are 



97 

directly opposite each other and that the quadrant and 
brushes are moved around on the commutator according 
to the number of lights in use. 

Ques. How would you know when to move the quad- 
rant? Ans. By the sparking of the brushes on the 
commutator. 

Ques. What mainly causes the dynamo to flash or spark ? 
Ans. The brushes not being directly opposite through 
the diameter of the commutator, sometimes not enough 
pressure on the commutator, sometimes the brushes not 
far enough around on the commutator, also too much 
brush surface. 

Sparking at the brushes. Some styles of dynamos 
will spark at the brushes in spite of anything the atten- 
dant can do to prevent it, but many other styles of dyn- 
amos can be run with absolutely no sparks on the 
commutator. The first point to be attended to is to get 
your commutator perfectly smooth, or as near it as 
possible, with the means at your command, for if the 
commutator is not true you can not prevent it from 
sparking. 

If you have a slide-rest, use it, and get your commuta- 
tor round and true from end to end. If you have no 
slide-rest, a i6 in. bastard file will do nearly as well. 
Take the brushes and brush holders off, so that you may 
have plenty of room to work. Start the dynamo to turn- 
ing very slowly. Hold a piece of chalk so near the com- 
mutator that it will mark all of the high spots. Move 
the chalk slowly from end to end of the commutator, so 
that all high places on the full length will be chalked. 
Stop the dynamo and amuse yourself filing off those parts 
that have been marked by the chalk. If you have no- 
ticed while the dynamo was turning about how much the 
commutator was ''out," you can easily tell about how 

7 



98 

much you will have to file away to bring it true. File ofi 
all the places that have been marked, and then start up 
again slowly, and chalk it again. Repeat the chalking 
and filing until the commutator is round, and of the same 
size from end to Qnd. 

Next get a piece of shingle, thin board, or a piece of 
lathe even will do, and wrap a sheet of No. oo. sand-paper 
around it — never use emery paper or cloth — start the 
dynamo at a pretty lively speed, and smooth the commut- 
ator down with the sand-paper, holding the flat side 
against the work. It is not necessary to work it down to 
a polished s\Mia.QQy although it would be well if it were 
polished. Now that you have your commutator round 
and smooth — and it must be so smooth that there are 
none of the marks left on the commutator, for it was 
trouble that caused them and if any be left they will 
certainly cause more trouble. 

Now that you know your commutator is in good shape, 
proceed to set your brushes, being certain that the points 
of opposite brushes are directly opposite through the 
diameter. The pressure put on the brushes need only be 
just sufficient to make good contact. It is not necessary 
to have much pressure to preserve good contact. Should 
the contact be too slight it will make itself known by a 
peculiar noise that is indescribable, being neither a snap, 
crack, or pop, and yet might be called by either of these 
names. You may be sure that the noise will call yoiu: at- 
tention if you are anywhere near, and after you have 
once noticed it you will easily recognize it the next time. 
This noise and considerable sparking will always be pres- 
ent when the brushes do not press heavily enough upon 
the commutator. 

If the brushes are not set with the points directly op- 
posite, sparking will result. 



99 

If the brushes are set ahead of the neutral line or back 
of it they will spark. 

When setting four brushes on a commutator that re- 
quires two brushes side by side, it is sometimes difficult to 
get all four of them of an equal length, or evenly divided 
on the commutator, one or more of them will spark more 
or less. After rocking the Drushes back and forth a trifle 
to find the point of least sparking, you can then tell by 
the color of the spark whether the brush should be 
lengthened or shortened. When the spark is of a decided- 
ly greenish color the brush is too short, but if the spark 
appears to spatter and shows a reddish hue, then you will 
find that the brush is too long, or it is so worn, that there 
is too much of it in contact. By the way, you will find 
fully as much, if not more, trouble arising from having 
too much brush in contact, than from having too little„ 

Cutting of Commutator^ scratching and eating away of 
the segments, is mostly due to the brushes having too 
'much surface in contact, and increase of pressure v/ill 
wear away the commutator, and having too much of the 
face of the brush in contact will cause an edge of the seg- 
ments to become eaten away, and if not attended to, they 
will, in a very short time, become as rough and uneven 
as a corduroy road. 

With the thicker style of brushes we have never found 
it necessary, even when running at full load, to have 
more than one-third of the full end surface of the brush 
in contact with*the commutator, and further, v/e have 
found that if we allowed the brush to become so worn 
that even one-half of the end surface bore on the seg- 
ments it would cause sparking. 

To prevent filing the brushes every day (which would 
be wasteful, ) to keep them in the best of order, we found 
that they could, with great advantage, be turned the 



lOO 



other side up and allowed to wear in that way until the 
surface became to great. This resulted in getting more 
than twice the amount of work out of a brush than was 
possible by filing always from one side, or trimming the 
ends square as often as they became badly worn. If the 




THE EDISON DYNAMO. 



commutator becomes very hot you will be quite sure to 
find that your brushes are badly worn. 

Flat Spots on the commutator, frequently explained by 
laying it to sot spots in the copper, we have always found 
to result from an entirely different cause. When the 
marks have the appearance of a blow from the pene of a 



lOI 



hammer, it will generally be found to b« caused by a 
loosely connected or badly soldered armatui-e wire con- 
nection. A spot of this kind continue to grow larger 
until the cause of it is removed and the commutator 
dressed down smooth. 

At the end of the segments a spark or scream of fire en- 
circling the whole commutator will sometimes be 
noticed. 

This may be caused by an accumulation of oil or cibp- 
per-dust or dirt, that causes a short circuit, but it will 
generally be found that the insulation is charred or 
burned through at some place near where the spark is 
noticed, and if a careful examination of the armature 
wires are made you will find that a connection is loose or 
has very poor conductivity. Allowing the commutator 
to run hot will increase difficulties of this kind. 



THE PRINCIPALOFTHEDYNAIYIOCOM- 
PARED WITH THE STEAM PUMP. 

We are often asked how can a dynamo be easily under- 
stood; the question coming from engineers who have 
charge of electric lighting plants. 

The whole thing may be compared, in its principles, to 
the working of a steam pump forcing • water through a 
line of pipe of the same extent as the line wires. The 
dynamo (or pump) forces electricity instead of water. 
So long as the dynamo or pump works continuously the 
pipes or wires are filled with a current of water or elec- 
tricity, flowing in one direction; in other words, a con- 
tinuous current. Thus we may say: that a certain number 
of pounds steam pressure is required to overcome the 
friction of the water in the pipes, so that so many cubic 
feet or gallons of water shall be delivered per minute, 



I02 



equally true we can say, so many volts are required to 
overcome the resistance of the wire, so that the current 
shall be delivered in so many amperes per minute. Hence, 
to simplify, we may say pounds of steam pressure = 
volts; the friction=resistance; the pipe=the wire; cur- 
rent = volume of water in motion, and amperes of elec- 
tricity =gallons of water delivered at the end per minute. 
Kvery engineer knows that the larger the pipe the more 
gallons water per minute, and the less relative friction, so 
the larger the wire the more current can be carried and 
the less resistance, relative to the number amperes deliv- 
ered. The same analogy holds good in the opposite, for 
the smaller the pipe or wire, the greater the friction or re- 
sistance. Kvery engineer who uses a steam pump or an 
injector, knows that there is some point to which, if his 
pipes were reduced in size, nearly or quite all his power 
(steam pressure) would be absorbed in friction. So elec- 
trically, our voltage may be largely consumed or absorbed 
by too small a wire; in either case — either the water or 
the electricity — the result of the work done is in both 
cases uniform and identical, viz: A continuous current, 
and is the current that has been generally used for the 
production of light and power. The other current, which 
is largely employed in the generation of electrical power, 
viz: the alternating current, differs essentially from that 
which we have described above, and in fact our analogy 
to the working of a pump comes to an end. The current 
from an alternating dynamo, instead of flowing contin- 
uously and directly, is simply a vibratory movement, or 
a *'back and forth flow.'^ Here the supremacy of elec- 
tricity as a power, or rather as a transmittor of power, ' 
comes in, for, returning to one pump, should we at each 
alternate stroke of the pump reverse the direction of flow 
of the water, the entire power, or nearly all of it, would 



I03 

be absorbed by its weight, and the friction in the pipes. 
But electricity boring without weight, there is of course 
no loss by reversing its flow; indeed, the -possibilities of 
application to useful service, dependent on the reversals, . 
are of greatest value. To clearly explain the action of the 
alternating system, we have to consider the requirements 
under which electricity does the most acceptable work. 

Every engineer who is making electric lights knows that 
the most satisfactory results, i. e., the best light is obtained 
by using a dynamo and distributing system of as high 
voltage as possible, in conjunction with a lamp of low vol- 
,tage. Here, then, we have two actually opposite condi- 
tions, which must be harmonized to produce a perfect 
result in their action, and which are plainly impossible in 
the continuous current system, which we have explained 
by the comparison to our pump; because it is evident, to 
renew the comparison; that, if we are carrying a pressure 
(steam), and our line of pipes is calculated to deliver a 
certain amount of water per minute; if we throttle down 
at the delivery end, so as to deliver only yo ^^ 20 ^^ the 
amount, we shall only be able to do so by reducing our 
pressure relatively, involving a great loss of efficiency, or 
incur the risk of destruction to the plant at some point. 

Hence we are obliged to provide some appliance which 
shall intervene to convert the high voltage of the dynamo 
and circuit to the low voltage of the lamps. When such 
an apphance is used it is known as a converter system, 
and the use of an alternating current and converter sys- 
tem are mutually dependent on and necessary to each 
other. 

This system can be compared to the engineer's system 
of steam heating in his building thus: Suppose he carries 
75 lbs. boiler pressure, and the steam is carried into the 
building in one main pipe, and from that is distributed 



I04 

by risers, etc., to the different radiators in the building. 
It is evident that he has no use for full boiler pressure on 
the risers and radiators, as, even if they would stand it 
for a time, it would be no more effective for heating than a 
reduced pressure; hence, he puts in a reducing valve in 
the steam main, between the boilers and risers. 

So, then, the converter used in connection with an al- 
ternating current is exactly an electrical reducing valve, 
with a high pressure (voltage) on one side, and a low 
working pressure (voltage) on the other. Thus, by us- 
ing this converter he may carry any voltage at the dy- 
namo and primary circuit, reducing into the secondary to 
conform to the amount of current required. Bach cur- 
rent continuous or alternate, have especial fields to which 
they are adapted, and while both are extensively in use 
each has its peculiar adaption. 

Ques. How do you understand the term *Volt'*? 
Ans. The 'Volt'^ is a measure of electro — motive force, 
or original energy. Corresponding to the dynamic term 
'•pressure,*^ but not of power." It is based on the product 
of one Daniell cell of a battery. 

Ques. How do you understand the term **ohm"? 
Ans. The *'ohm" is the measure of resistance, and com- 
pares to the dynamic term of *'loss by transmission.** It 
is based on the resistence offered by a copper wire .05 in. 
diameter, 250 ft. long; or a copper wire, 32 guage, 10 
ft. long. 

Ques. How do you understand the term * ^ampere"? 
Ans. The '^ampere," is the measure for current or what 
passes; the intensity, it may be called*, and is comparable 
to the dynamic term of '^power transmitted," or ''effect.*' 
It is the residual force of one **volt" after passing through 
one "ohm" of resistance. 



I05 

Ques. How do you understand the term "coulomb" ? 
Ans. The ''coulomb" is a measure of current, qualified 
by time; one ampere acting for one second of time, com- 
paring in nature with the dynamic ''foot-pound." 

Ques. How do you understand the term "watt"? 
Ans. The "watt" is the unit for dynamic effect produced 
by electro-motive force or current. It equals 44.22 foot- 
pounds, or 746 h. p. 

Ques. How many "coulombs" in a "watt"? Ans. 
There are 44.22 "coulombs." 

Ques. How many "watts" in an electrical h. p. ? Ans. 
There are 746 "watts" in a h. p. 

Ques. How many horse power will it take to run a 50 
arc light dynamo. E)ach arc light equaling 45 "volts" 
and 8 "amperes" giving 1600 candle power to each light? 
Ans. Multiply the "voltage" by the "amperes" then the 
number of lights lit, and divide by electrical h. p. which 
is 746 "watts." The answer will be the h. p. of engine 
required. 

FORCE OF A THUNDERBOLT. 

It has been calculated that the electromotive force of a 
bolt of lightning is about 3,500,000 volts, the current 
about 14,000,000 amperes, and the time to be one-twenty- 
thousandth part of a second. In such a bolt there is an 
energy of 2,450,000,000 watts, or 3,284,182 horse-power. 

PROTECTING BUILDINGS- 

There is a popular saying or proverb, that "lightning 
never strikes twice in the same place," and the casualties 
that occur from it are so much more rare than those that 
happen from other causes that a man who takes no pre* 
cautions to guard^gainst such is not considered negligent 



lo6 



by any except those interested in '^protecting** his prop- 
erty against damage by lightning. As a matter of fact, 
the lightning rod pedler has come to be a standard sub- 
ject of newspaper jokes and considered a sort of harmless 
fraud by the public. He is bound to meet with some 
success, however, in his business, because the subject of 
atmospheric electricity, and thunderstorms is so little 
understood even by scientists. 

It is not at all probable that thunder storms and light- 
ning discharges of the present day differ in the least 
from those of a hundred or a thousand years ago, but it 
is very apparent that a greater loss of life and property 
occurs from them now than ever before, a fact easily ac- 
counted for by the increase of population and of property 
liable to such damage. The enormous increase in the 
number of newspapers and of facilities for collecting and 
distributing such items of news naturally also tend to 
make the impression that such casualties occur oftener 
than of yore. However infrequent such accidents occur 
we know that they do happen sometimes and always un- 
expectedly and very suddenly. It is, therefore, the part 
of wisdom and prudence to take such precautions as 
science and experience teach against these contingencies. 

THE CAUSE OF THUNDERSTORMS. 

It is generally conceded that the evaporation of water 
from the surface of the earth, most of which contains 
some kind of mineral salt in solution, is the primary ori- 
gin of most of the phenomena of atmospheric electric- 
ity, and those who do not fully indorse this theory admit 
that it is the great agency for stirring up the potential 
energy derived from the sun and distributing it over the 
universe, whether in thunderstorms or in the incessant 
quiet changes that are going on in the various forms of 



I07 

forces employed by nature. Vapor, whether invisible in 
the ultimate divisibility of its component storms or in a 
partially condensed condition in the form of clouds, is 
the vehicle in which is stored the sun's potential energy 
which we call electricity. Hence the common concep- 
tion of lightning is that it is an electric fluid packed 
away in the clouds which may at uncertain times be dis- 
charged to the earth with destructive energy in the form 
of ''thunder bolts/* The lightning rod, or conductor, as 
the electrians call it, is regarded as having some sort of 
power to attract these thunder bolts and convey them to 
the ground like a pipe would carry water. These popu- 
lar ideas were derived mostly from the eloquent lightning 
rod pedler and are not only erroneous but lead to mis- 
takes in the location and setting up of lightning rods that 
sometimes cause fatal results. Atmospheric electricity is 
just the same as that we use for motive power, heat and 
light. The thunder cloud is, to all intents, a condenser 
plate upon which terminates the polarized chain of a cir* 
cuit, and its action will depend upon the nature of the 
opposite condensing plate. If this is another cloud at a 
distance the discharge will take place between them and 
have little effect upon the earth, except what is called 
* 'induction,*' that will effect telephone, telegraph, and 
other wires canying currents of low potential, and people 
of a peculiar nervous organization. If, however, the 
earth forms the opposite condensing plate, which often 
happens, then the discharge will be from the elouds to 
the earth and sometimes in the opposite direction. In 
the latter case all bodies, as well as the air between the 
clouds and the earth are ''polarized'* and the 
discharges always occur in the line of least resistance 
when the tension rises to a degree greater than the resist- 
ance of the circuit can sustain. These discharges are 



io8 



very erratic and very slight circumstances will determine 
their direction, such as a tree, a man, or an animal stand- 
ing on moist ground, a vein of mineral, a line of piping 
in the ground, etc., etc. 

This brief and crude eflfort to portray the nature of a 
discharge of lightning will convey some idea of the prin- 
ciples of lightning rods to avoid the effect. They are not 
intended to attract or to convey a discharge of lightning 
from the clouds to the ground but to supercede the con- 
dition of polarization and tension in the space to be pro- 
tected, and if properly made and put up will diminish 
the likelihood and frequency of the discharges, but it is 
undoubtedly true that they also invite them by setting 
up a line of low resistance. 

The theory of the lightning rod is that it practically 
raises the earth's surface to a height that corresponds 
with the electric relations of the rod and the air, and the 
protected area is a cone whose base equals the height of 
the rod, but this theory applies to the rod itself' and is 
greatly affected by the nature of the buildings in the pro- 
tected area, their form, material and contents. Just what 
form this protected area assumes when there are build- 
ings within it or to what points it extends no one has 
ever yet discovered. But whatever the space protected 
may be, within it the rod (or conductor) lowers the con- 
dition of tension, and either nullifies it or transferes it to 
the space outside of the protected area. When a charged 
cloud approaches and"^ sets up an * 'inductive circuit'* to 
the earth the rod conducts the current quietly to the earth 
and thus lowers the potential above it so that frequently 
it does not accumulate sufficiently to cause a discharge — 
that is a lightning flash. And this is the real purpose of 
lightning rods. - 



109 

*In putting up lightning rods the object should [be to 
connect with earth every portion of the building, and as, 
in practice this is impossible with any but metal build- 
ings, they should ^ connect every exposed point and par- 
ticular care should be taken with the chimneys and smoke 
stacks. Every chimney lined with soot is a fine con- 
ductor of electricity, and if there is a fire in it the warm 
air ascending to the clouds invites a discharge. Nine 
buildings out of every ten struck by lightning receive the 
discharge by the chimneys. Every piece of metal in the 
construction of the building should be connected with 
the conductors. 

For small buildings iron rods are used. If a large 
number are used and all properly connected to earth % 
inch galvanized telegraph wire will answer every pur- 
pose but for a single conductor not less than half inch 
rod should be used ; solid rod is best for it is the mass or 
weight of metal that conducts and not its surface and a 
solid rod presents the least surface to rust. Screw or 
riveted j oints will not do. The rods must have continu- 
ous metalic connections. 

The most important thing in the whole matter of pro- 
tecting houses from lightning is the earth connections. 
Every rod must be connected to water or to earth that is 
saturated with moisture. Water and gas mains are the 
best connections provided a good metallic connection is 
made. A well constantly supplied by a stream affords a 
good earth connection, but the earth connection is 
sufficient. 



no 



PRACTICAL POINTS FOR ENGINEERS. 

Steam-pipes, whether for power or for heating, should 
always pitch downward from the boiler, that the con- 
dense^ water, etc.,. may have the same direction as the 
steam, or otherwise there will be trouble, unless the pipes 
are either very short or very large. 

Globe valves should always be so placed in steam 
-pipes that their stems are very nearly horizontal, 
in order to prevent a heavy accumulation of condensed 
water in the pipes. Wherever a horizontal steam-pipe is 
reduced in size there should be a drip to avoid filling the 
larger pipe partially with condensed water. 

In order to make a rust joint that will stand heat and 
cold as well as rough usage, mix ten (lo) parts of iron 
filings and three (3) parts of chloride of lime with enough 
water to make a paste. Put the mixture on the joint and 
bolt firmly; in twelve hours it will be set so that the iron 
will break sooner than the cement.. 

TO RE:mOVE rust from STKKI/. 
Cover the steel for a couple of days with sweet oil; then 
with finely powdered unslacked lime (known as quick 
lime,) rub the steel until the rust is removed; then re-oil 
to prevent fxurther rust. 

HOW TO CLEAN BRASS. 
Nitric acid, one part; sulphuric acid Yz part. Mix in a 
jar, swab on and rub with sawdust. 

HOW TO CI^EAN DIRTY BRASS QUICKI^Y. 
Finely rubbed bichromate of potassa, mixed with twice 
its bulk of sulphuric acid and an equal quantity of water 
will clean the dirtiest brass very quickly. 



Ill 



A soft alloy which attaches itself so firmly to tha sur- 
face of metals, glass and porcelain that it can be em- 
ployed to solder articles that will not bear a very high 
temperature, can be made as follows: Copper dust ob- 
tained by precipitation from a solution of the sulphate by 
means of zinc is put in a cast iron or porcelain lined 
mortar and mixed with strong sulphuric acid, specific 
gravity 1.85. From 20 to 30 or 36 parts of the copper are 
taken, according to the hardness desired. To the cake 
formed of acid and copper there ia added, under constant 
stirring, 70 parts of mercury. When well mixed the 
amalgum is carefully rinsed with warm water to remove 
all the acid, and then set asid-e to cool. In ten or twelve 
hours it is hard enough to scratch tin. If it is to be used 
now, it is to be heated so hot that when worked over 
and brayed in an iron mortar it becomes as soft as wax. 
In this ductile form it can be spread- out on any surface, 

to which it adheres with great tenacity when it gets cold 
and hard. 

Cement for smai^i, I^eaks in Steam Boii^ers. 

Kxperimehts have shown the following to be effectual 
for stopping small leaks from the seams of boilers, pipes, 
etc. Mix equal parts of air-slacked lime and fine sand; 
and finely powdered litherage in parts equal to both the 
lime and sand. Keep the powder dry in a bottle or 
covered box. When wanted to apply, mix as much as 
needed to a paste, with boiled linseed oil, and apply 
quickly, as it soon hardens. 

Cement for Iron Works. 

It is sometimes advisable to fix two pieces of iron, as 

pipes for water or steam, firmly together as a permanency. 

Sal-ammoniac, one part by weight; sulphur, two parts; 

fine iron borings free from oil. The three should be 



112 



made with water to a conveniently handled paste. The 
theory of its action is simply union by oxidation. To 
drive a nail in hard seasoned wood, dip the points in lard, 
and they can be driven home without difficulty. 

Se^wing-machine Oil,. 
Best paraffin e oil, i oz; best sperm oil, i oz. Mix and 
use. 

CEMENT i<iKE) That on Postagk Stamps: 

Mix two ozs. of Mextrine, acetic acid, ^ oz., water, 2^ 
ozs. After mixture is made, add ^ oz. alcohol. 

To Make Tracing Paper 
Wet common drawing paper or any other kind, with 
benzine, the paper becomes transparent immediately, 
and can be placed over a drawing or picture, to be* trans- 
ferred by tracing with a pencil. This is very valuable. 

To Joint I^ead Pipes. 

Widen out the end of one pipe with a taper wood drift, 
and scrape it clean outside and inside; scrape the end of 
the other pipe outside a little tapered, and insert it in the 
former; then solder the joint with common lead solder by 
pouring it on with a small ladle and work the solder 
with a pad made out of 2 or 3 plies of greased bed-tick 
by holding it under the joint and smoothing it over by 
working it round making a ball joint, first rubbing a little 
grease on the scraped parts or joint to be made — thus 
making it strong. 

To PowsH Brass. 

When the brass is made smooth by turning or filing 
with a very fine file, it may be rubbed with a smooth fine 
grain stone, or with charcoal and water When it is 
quite smooth and free from scratches, it may be polished 
rotten stone and oil, alcohol, or spirits of turpentine. 



113 

To Fii.1. Hoi.e:s in Castings. 
Ivcad, 9 parts; antimony, 2 parts; and bismutli, i part; 
this is melted and poured in to fill the holes. 

To Soften Iron or Stbki. 
Anoint it all over with tallow; heat it in a charcoal fire; 
then let it cool. 

To Distinguish Wrought and Cast Iron 

FROM STEBI<. 
File and polish the surfaces, and apply a drop of nitric 
acid, which is allowed to remain there for one or two 
minutes, and then washed off with water. The spot will 
then look a pale ashy gray on wrought iron, a brownish 
black on steel, a deep black on cast iron. The amotmt 
of carbon in iron or steel produces the different colors. 

To Case-harden Iron very deep. 
Put the iron to be case-hardened in a crucible with 
cyanide of potash, cover over and heat together, then 
plunge into water. This process will harden to the 
depth of three inches. 

To Ci^Ean Steei. and Iron. 
Make i oz. soft soap and 2 oz. fine emery in a paste; 
rub it on the article with wash-leather and it will have a 
brilliant polish. 

How TO ''FIGURE OUT'* OF THE SCRAPE OF OlZr 

Daubed Sight-Feed Gi^asses. 
Hunt up a plumber friend, and get the use of his gaso- 
line **devil** for ten minutes. Plug one end of a glass 
tube; then heat about an inch in the middle; when hot, 
blow into the open end and tlie tube will quickly bulge 
itself. Cut off both ends to the right length, and no 
-more trouble will arise from oil^ubed glasses, 

8 " ' ,. 



114 

Look out for the oily waste, especially if there be any 
turpentine in it. Keep it in a fireproof receptacle, oi- 
better still, bum it up every night. Some dye-stuffs are 
as bad as oil. The total heat generated by an equal 
amount of oxidization is identical, whether it proceeds 
at so slow a rate as to show its effect only in the change 
of appearance of the article, or so rapidly that the 
temperature is high enough to consume the substance 
and ignite the fabric. 

A good composition for welding steel is made of one 
part of salammoniac ten parts borax. The ingredients 
should be poured together, fused until clear, poured out 
to cool and finally reduced to powder. 

To Find the Height of a Tree or Other 
Tai.1, Objects. 
Take two small sticks of even length, join them to- 
gether at *'C" as shown in the following cut. Place the 
end **A" on a level with the eye, walk back to such a 

B 



D 

distance from the tree or object that the point '*D** may 
be in a line with the root or base and the point "B" 
in a line with the top or limb. The distance from the 
measurer^s foot to the root or base of the tree or object, 
will be equal to the height of the limb or object. 

Ques. How can brass and other polished articles be 
kept from tarnishing? Ans. They can be covered with 



"5 

a thin coat of shellac dissolved in alcohol. The bright 
work should be warm before applying the coating so it 
will flow smoothly and dry quickly. 

Ques. Give a good recipe of cement that will fasten 
leather to metal or wood ? Ans. Mix a gill of best 
glue with little water, a teaspoonfuU of glycerine, and use 
warm. 

Ques. Give a good black paint for boiler fronts ? Ans. 
Coal tar, ground graphite and turpentine is very durable. 

HOW TO REJNOVATK BI<ACK GOODS. 

An excellent cleansing fluid, especially useful when 
men's garments require renovation, is prepared as fol- 
lows: Dissolve four ounces of white Castile scap shavings 
in a quart of boiling water. When cold add four ounces 
of ammonia, two ounces each of ether, alcohol, and gly- 
cerine, and a gallon of clear cold water. M^ thoroughly 
and as it will keep for a long time, bot^Ae and cork tightly 
for future use. This mixture will cost about eighty 
cents, and will make eight quarts. 

For men's clothing, heavy clo^\i etc., dilute a small 
quantity in an equal amount of 'vater, and following the 
nap of the goods, sponge the st^ns with a piece of similar 
cloth. The grease that gathers upon the collars of coats 
will immediately disappear, nnd the undiluted fluid wiH 
vanquish the more obsti^^ate spocs. When clean, drj 
with another cloth, and dvess the underside with a warm 
iron. This fluid is alsc? useful when painted walls and 
wood-work require sc(?wering, a cupful to a pail of w/* ^m 
water being the proper porporti^.ns. 



ii6 



RULE FOR CALCULATING SPEED AND 
SIZES OF PULLEYS. 

To find the size of driving pulleys: 

Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of 
revolutions it shall make, and divide the answer by the 
revolutions of the driver per minute. The answer will be 
the diameter of the driver. 

To find the diameter of the driven that shall make a 
given number of revolutions: 

Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of 
revolutions, and divide the answer by the number of rev- 
olutions of the driven. The answer will be the diameter 
of the driven. 

To find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley: 

Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of 
revolutions, and divide by the diameter of the driven. 
The answer will be the number of revolutions of the 
driven. 

HOW l^O WRITE INSCRIPTIONS ON MBTAW. 

Take Y^ lb. of nitric acid and i oz. of muriatic acid, 
mix, shake well together, and it is ready for use. Cover 
the place you wish to mark with melted beeswax; when 
cold write your inscription plainly in the wax clear to the 
metal with a sharp instrument; then apply the mixed 
acids with a feather, carefully filling each letter. I^et it 
remain from i to lo minutes, according to appearance de- 
sired: then throw on water, which stops the process and 
removes the wax. 

RECIPE I^OR NICKEI.-PI.ATING WITHOUT A BATTERY. 

Take i^ gills chloride of zinc, i gallon of clear water 
then add enough sulphate of nickel to turn it green, then 
heat it to a boil in a porcelain vessel. The heating makes 



117 

the solution cloudy, but does not injure it. Keep the so- 
lution next to boiling until the articles to be plated are done 
say from 30 to So minutes then \v1ien done polish with chalk 
first cooling the article in cold water. The articles to be 
plated should be very clean, to clean articles to be plated 
use nitric acid i part, sulphuric acid J4 part, put in stone 
jars, then drop in clear water. Strong lye can be used. 
All handling must be done with a copper wire. 

HOW TO PKTRIFY WOOD. 

Gum salt, rock alum, white vinegar, chalk and peb- 
bles powder of each an equal qoantity. Mix well to- 
gether, if, after the ebulition is over, you throw into 
this liquid any wood or porus substance, it will petrify it. 

RAILWAY SIGNALS. 

One whistle signifies ^'down brakes.** 

Two whistles signify '*off breaks." 

Three whistles signify *'back up.'* 
• Continued whistles signify "danger.'* 

Rapid short whistles "a cattle alarm.** 

A sweeping parting of the hands on a level with the 
eyes, signifies '*go ahead." 

Downward motion of the hands with extended arms, 
signifies ''stop.'* 

Beckoning motion of one hand, signifies ''back.'* 

Red flag waved up the track, signifies "danger." 

Red flag stuck up by the roadside, signifies "danger 
ahead.'* 

Red flag carried on a locomotive, signifies "an engine 
or train following.'* 

Red flag hoisted at a station is a signal to "stop.*' 

Lanterns at night raised and lowered vertically, is a sig- 
nal to "start. " 

Lantems swung across the track, means "stop." 

Lanterns swung in '^ aircle to the left, signifies "back 
the train." 



ii8 



TIME AND SPEED TABLE. 



9i 

'd 
a 
o 

53 9 w 

.S 8 5 



lo miles per hour is 6.oo 



12 


(< (< (( (( 


15 


(( (( (( i( 


i8 


ti (( (( it 


20 


it t( u << 


22 


it i( (( (( 


24 


( ( (I (( i( 


25 


it tt (1 <( 


28 


l( (( (( tl 


30 


( ( <( ( ( < ( 


34 


i( < < (( <( 


35 


(. (( tt it 


36 


tt tt tt t( 


38 


tt tt tt tt 


40 


tt tt tt it 


41 


ti tt tt ti 


42 


ti tt it it 


44 


ti it it a 


46 


it tt tt n 


48 


ti tt it ti 


50 


it it it ti 


52 


tt a tt ti 


54 


it a tt ti 


56 


it a it tt 


58 


(t ti ti tt 


60 


it ti ti a 



.5.00 
.4.00 
.3.20 
.3.00 

.2.43-5 

.2.30 

.2.24 

.2.08.5 

.2.00 

.1.45.6 

.1.42.6 

.1.40 

.1.34.7 

.1.30 

.1.27.7 

.1.25.7 

.1.21.7 

.1.18.2 

.1.15.0 

.1.12.0 

.1.09.4 

.1.06.6 

.1.04,3 

.1.02.2 

.1.00.0 



to 



119 

THE STEAMER GREAT EASTERN. 

The construction commenced May i, 1854, and the 
^ork of launching her, which lasted from November 3, 
1857, to January 31, 1858, cost $300,000, hydraulic pressure 
being employed. Her extreme length is 680 feet, breadth 
82)^ feet, and including paddle-boxes, 118 feet; height, 
58 feet, or 70 to top of bulwarks. She has eight engines, 
capable^ in actual work of 11, 000 horse-power, and has De- 
sides 20 auxilary engines. She was sold in 1864 for 
$25,000, and was employed on several occasions with 
success as a cable-laying vessel. The Great Eastern was 
sold at public auction October 28, 1885, ^or $126,000. 

USEFUL INFORMATION. 

A gallon of water (U. S. Standard) weighs 8 J pounds 
and contains 231 cubic inches 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds, and contains 
1,728 cubic inches, or 7^ gallons. 

Condensing engines require 20 to 25 gallons of water to 
condense the steam evaporated from one gallon of water. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a 
column of water, multiply the height of the column in 
feet by .434. (Approximately, every foot elevation is 
called equal to one-half pound pressure per square inch. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiply 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will 
give the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount 
by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a gallon in 
inches), and the product is the capacity in gallons. 

Ordinary speed to run pumps is 100 feet of piston per 
minute. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute run- 
ning at 100 feet of piston per miuute: Square the diam- 



I20 



eter of water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. 
Example: capacity of a five inch cylinder is desired: the 
square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied 
by 4, gives 100, which is gallons per minute, (approxi- 
mately.) 

To- find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a 
given quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston 
being the speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then 
extract the square root, and the result will be the diam- 
eter in inches. 

To find the velocity in feet per minute necessary to dis- 
charge a given volume of water in a given time, multiply 
the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide the 
product by the area of the pipe in inches. 

To find the area of a required pipe the volume and vel- 
ocity of water being given, multiply the number of cubic 
feet of water by 144, and div ide the product by the veloc- 
ity in feet per minute. The area being found, it is easy 
to get the diameter of the pipe necessary. 

The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam 
pressure, gives the total amount of pressure exerted. The 
area of the water piston, multiplied by the pressure of 
water per square inch gives the resistance. A margin 
must be made between the power and resistance, to move 
the pistons at the required speed; usually reckoned at 
about 50 per cent. 

How TO Prioserve Bggs. — To each pailful of water, 
add two pints of fresh slacked lime and one pint of com- 
mon salt; mix well. Fill your barrel half full with this 
fluid, put your eggs down in it any time after June, and 
they will keep two years if desired. 

To KlI.I< AND GET RID Olf BEDBUGS AND MOTHS. — Use 

either gasoline or benzine. In using these fluids be care- 
ful about lights and fires as they are very inflammable. 



121 



Kgg Stains. — To remove from spoons rub with chloride 
of sodium. 

Hair. — ^To clean hair, wash well with a mixture of soft 
water one pint; soda one ounce; cream tartar one-fourth 
ounce. 

Bites and Stings of Inskcts.— Wash with a solution 
of water of ammonia. 

BiTE) OF Cats. — Apply fat salt pork to the wound for a 
day or two, or until the poison is all extracted. 

Mad Dog Bites. — See a physician at once if possible, 
or apply caustic potash at once to the wound. Give 
enough whiskey to cause sleep. 

Ratti^esnakk Bites.— Whiskey is supposed to be the 
great cure-all. Give enough to cause intoxication. 

Burns. — Make a paste of baking soda and water and 
apply it promptly to the bum. Will check the inflam- 
mation and pain. 

Screw. — To remove an obdurate screw, apply a red hot 
iron to the head for a short time, the screw-driver being 
applied at once while the screw is hot. 

Gi^ASS Stopper. — To remove a glass stopper from a 
bottle, warm the neck of the bottle with a warm iron, 
taking care not to warm the stopper This causes the 
bottle to expand and loosens the stopper. 

Fruit Stains. — ^To remove the stains of acid fruit from 
the hands, wash your hands in clear water, dry slightly, 
and Jwhile yet moist strike a match and hold your hands 
around the flame. The stains will disappear. 

Iron Rust. — ^To remove from muslin or white goods; 
thoroughly saturate the spots with lemon juice and salt, 
and expose to the sun. Usually more than one applica- 
tion is required. A good way to prevent its appearance 
on clothes is when washing to always have them inclosed 
in a muslin bag when being boiled. 



122 



To Stop Vomiting.— Drink freely of hot water, just as 
hot as can be borne. 

Hard Water. — To soften, boil it and expose to the 
atmosphere. Add a little soda. 

Medicine Stains. — To remove from spoons, rub with 
a rag dipped in sulphuric acid and wash off with soap 
suds. 

To Make A Smai.1, Water Fii^TER.—- Take a deep 
flower pot and put a compressed sponge in the hole in 
the bottom; Over the sponge put a layer of pebbles an 
inch thick; next an inch of coarse sand; next a layer of 
charcoal; and at the top another layer of pebbles. The 
water will filter pure and clear through the aperture into 
another vessel, however impure previously. 

A box having a capacity of one (i) cubic foot will con- 
tain ten (lo) pounds of cotton waste, packed snugly. 

Washed waste is not so economical as cop waste for an 
engineer's use, though it costs less per pound. Nor is 
colored so economical as white waste. The best is always 
the cheapest in the end. 

The safe thickness for copper steam pipes may be found 
by muitiplying the diameter in inches by the pressure in 
pounds and dividing the product by 4000; the quotient is 
the thickness in parts of an inch. Of course, a trifle 
more should be added for stiffness and wear. 

ANTIDOTES FOR POISON. 

In cases where other articles to be used as antidotes are 
notin the house, give two tablespoonsful of mustar dmixed 
in a pint of warm water. Also give large draughts of 
warm milk or water mixed with oil, butter or lard. If 
possible give as follows: 

Give milk or white of eggs, in large quantities, for bed 
bng poison, blue vitriol, corrosive sublimate, lead water, 



123 

sugar of lead, saltpeter, sulphate of zinc, red precipitate, 
Vermillion. 

Give prompt emetic of mustard and salt — tablespoonful 
of each, follow with sweet oil, butter or milk, for fow- 
ler's solution, white precipitate, and arsenic poisoning. 

For antimonial wine and tartaric emetic, drink warm 
water to encourage vomiting. If vomiting does not stop, 
give a grain of opium in water. 

For oil vitriol, aqua fortis, bi-carbonate potassa, muri- 
atic acid, and oxalic acid, take magnesia or soap, dissol- 
ved in water, every two minutes. 

Drink freely of water with vinegar or lemon juice in it, 
for caustic soda, caustic potash, volatile alkali. 

Give flour and water or glutinous drinks for carbolic 
acid. 

Pour cold water over the head and face, with artificial 
respiration, galvanic battery, for chloral hydrate, and 
chloroform. 

Prompt emetic, soap or mucilaginous drinks, for car- 
bonate of soda, copperas, and cobalt. 

For laudanum, morphine and opium, give strong coffee, 
followed by ground mustard or grease in warm water to 
produce vomiting. Keep in motion. 

For nitrate of silver, give common salt in water. 

For strychnine and tincture nux vomica, give emetic 
of mustard or sulphate of zinc, aided by warm water. 

Ants. — Sprigs of wintergreen or ground iv^y will drive 
away red ants. Branches of wormwood will drive away 
black ants. These insects may be kept out of sugar 
barrels by drawing a wide mark with white chalk around 
the top near the edge. 

Boots. — ^To make leather boots waterproof, saturate 
them with castor oil. To stop squeaking, drive a peg 
Into the middle of the sole. 



124 

Ci*ink:^rs. — To remove clinkers from stoves or fire 
brick, put in about a half a peck of oysters shells on top 
of a bright fire. It may need repeating but will be 
effectual. 

Grease Spots. — ^To remove, thoroughly saturate with 
turpentine, place a soft blotting paper beneath and 
another on top of the spot, and press it hard. Tne fat 
is dissolved and absorbed by the paper. 

Gii*T Frames. — To restore and clean gilt frames, gently 
rub with a sponge m5istened in turpentine. 

Ink Stains. — To remove, wash carefully with pure 
water and apply oxalic acid. If the latter changes the 
dye to a red tinge restore the color with diluted water of 
ammonia. 

Paint. — Chloroform will remove paint from clothing. 
When the color of a fabric has been injured by an acid, 
ammonia is applied to neutralize the same, after which 
an applicalion of chloroform will in nearly all cases re- 
store the color. 

Sli^VKRWARE. — To prevent articles of silverware from 
tarnishing, first warm them, and then paint them with a 
thin solution of collodion in alcohol, using a wide, soft 
brush for the purpose. 

Starch. — To prevent starch from souring when boiled, 
add a little sulphate of copper. 

To Ci^EAN Furniture-— First rub with cotton waste 
dipped in boiled linseed oil, then rub clean and dry with 
a soft cotton flannel cloth. Care must be taken that the 
oil is all rubbed off. 

To Remove Sunburn and Frecki^es.— To get off the 
freckles, to cause the sunburn to disappear, you have got 
to put on your face and neck, and on your arms, dark- 
ened by battling with the waves, a mixture, of two parts 
of Jamica rum to one of lemon juice; dabble it well on the 



125 

surface, let it dry, and wash it off in the morning in your 
hot bath. Besides whitening the skin, which the lemon 
does, the rum gives it a vigor and makes a rosy flush 
come to the surface. You will gain no good from this 
by doing it for one or two nights; keep it up for two 
weeks at the least, and remember that when your skin 
has that depressed, womout look that comes from sitting 
up too late at night, nothing will invigorate it like a few 
drops of Jamaica rum put into the water with which you 
wash your face. 

RKmkdiks F'or Burns and Scai^ds. — Every family 
should have a preparation of flaxseed oil, chalk and vin- 
egar, about the consistency of thick paint, constantly on 
hand for burns and scalds. The best application in cases 
of burns and scalds is a mixture of one part of carbolic 
acid to eight parts of olive oil. Lint or linen rags are to 
be saturated in the lotion, and spread smoothly over the 
burned part, which should then be covered with oil silk 
or gutta percha tissue to exclude air. 

Strength of Ice of Various Thickness.— Good 
clear ice two inches thick will bear men to walk on. 

Good clear ice four inches thick will bear horses and 
riders. 

Good clear ice six inches thick will bear horses and 
teams with moderate loads. 

Good clear ice eight inches thick will bear horses and 
teams with very heavy loads. 

Good clear ice ten inches thick will sustaiij a pressure 
of i,ooo pounds to the square foot. 

Vai,ue of a Ton of Goi,d and A Ton of Sii^ver. 

The value of a ton of pure gold is $602,799.21. 

$1,000,000 gold coin weighs 3,685.8 lbs. avoirdupois. 

The value of a ton of silver is $37,704.84. 

$1,000,000 silver coin weighs 58,929,9 lbs avoirdupois, 



126 



How TO Kiiyi, Grease Spots Before Painting.— 
Wash over smoky or greasy parts with saltpeter, or very 
thiu Ihne white wash. It soap-suds are used, they must 
be washed off thoroughly, as they prevent the paint from 
drying hard. 

HOW !ro MIX PAINTS FOR TINTS. 

Red and Black makes Brown 

Lake and White makes Rose 

White and Brown makes Chestnut 

White, Blue and Lake makes Purple 

Blue and Lead color makes Pearl 

White and Carmine makes Pink 

Indigo and Lamp-Black makes Silver Gray 

White and Lamp-Black makes ..Lead Color 

Black and Venetian Red makes Chocolate 

White and Green makes .Bright Green 

Purple and White makes French White 

Light Green and Black makes Dark Green 

White and Green makes Pea Green 

White and Emerald Green makes Brilliant Green 

Red and Yellow makes Orange 

White and Yellow makes Straw Color 

White, Blue and Black makes Pearl Gray 

White, Lake and Vermillion makes Flesh Color 

Umber, White and Venetian Red makes Drab 

White, Yellow and Venetian Red makes Cream 

Red, Blue, Black and Red makes Olive 

Yellow, White and a little Venetian Red makes Buff 

How TO Break Glass Any Shape.— File a little 
notch on the edge of the glass at the point you wish to 
start the break from; then put a suitably shaped red hot 
iron upon the notch, and draw, slowly, in the direction 
you wish. A crack will follow Ijie iron caused by the 
heat, if not drawn too fast. 

How TO Drii,!, Gi^ass. — Use a file drill, and keep the 
point wet with a mixture of camphene and spirits of tur- 
pentine. Turpentine can be used alone. The camphene 



127 

helps the drill to bite. Water will also answer to keep 
the point of the drill wet. 

PoiviSH FOR Fink Furniture. — Linseed oil, and old 
ale each yi pint; the white of i ^^% beaten; alcohol, and 
muriatic acid each i oz., mix all together. Directions. 
Shake well before using and after using keep well corked. 

Ebony Stain for Soft Wood, — Make a strong de- 
coction of logwood by boiling, and apply three or four 
times according to shade desired allowing it to dry 
between applications; then apply solution of acetate of 
iron. This is made by putting iron filings into good 
vinegar. 

To Wash and Poi^ish Silverware.— One teaspoonful 
of ammonia to very hot water i pt., and wash quickly 
with a small brush kept for the purpose only, and dry 
with a clean linen towel; then rub very dry with chamois. 

How TO Cure Drinking Habit. — ^The cure is simply 
an orange every morning Yz hour before breakfast, and 
the keeping away from saloons. 

Cure for SciaTia.— Wrap warm flat irons with some 
woolen fabric, dip in vinegar and apply to painful part 
two or three times a day, sure cure. 

Choicer A Mixture. — Aromatic sulphuric acid, one 
ounce; paregoric three ounces. Dose. One teaspoonful 
in four tablespoonfuls of water. This is the simplest and 
most generally useful combination, and should be kept 
ready for use in the house, office, store and workshop 
during a cholera season. 

lyiNiMENT FOR Rheumatism. — Alcohol, i ounce; 
oil of mustard, ^^ ounce; laudinimi i^ onuce; cod liver 
oil, I pint. 



128 



INDEX. 



Note. — The index is necessarily very much abbreviated. Oo 
account of there being so many points, rules, etc.. we found that to 
index each one would consume too much space. We trust however 
that any rule required may easily be founcf by consulting the gen- 
eral heading under which it should come. 

Page. 
The Boiler 5 

Pumps 19 

The Inspirator 26 

The Engine 35 

Steel Square 49 

Valve Motion , 54 

Horse Power o 60 

The Indicator , 63 

Rules 66 

The Corliss Engine 88 

Valves 88 

The Dynamos, etc 94-109 

Practical Points, etc 110-127 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Flue Brush 11 

Pump (common plunger) 20 

Steam Pump in detail > 21 

Duplex Pump in 'detail 24 

Inspirator. 27 

Boiler Feeder I . . . 29 

Engine 36 

The Governor 39 

Lubricator 41-4^ 

Indicator 63 

Screw Cutting Lathe 82 

The Corliss Engine 88 

C. & C. Dynamo 95 

Edison Dynamo 100 



•^VADE MECUM^ 

Compiled and Arranged by D. B. DiXON, with a most exhaust- 
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a prominent specialist. 



A Book for 
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Edison's Handy 
Encyclopaedia 

• III Of General Information, and 
•III Universal Atlas 

Compiled by Thos> F. Edison 

The possession of a copy of Edison's 
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mind, save laboi-, time and money, and instantly 
tell you everything jou want to know. 

Business Forms, Legal Items, etc., on S,000 
Subjects of value to every one in all occupa- 
tions. The volume has over Fifty full page 
colored M!aps, and a full description of 
every country in the woi"ld. 



Remember, this is a New Edition revised 
tliorougly and brought down to date. 
WORTH ITS WEIOH T I]^^ OOI.I> 



Man may Forget! 
Encyclopaedias never Do 

Absents naaking big: money. Sellsat sight. Prices: Bound in elegant 
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LAIRD & LEE, Publishers, 263 Wabash Avenue, Chicago. 

World's Ready Reckoner 

and Rapid Calculator 




^ FOR THE YOUNG AND THE OLD— 
AN EVERY DAY NECESSITY 

Contains tables of values of the money of all 
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Conklin's Handy flanual 




OF USEFUL INFORMATION 
AND ATLAS OF THE WORLD 



440 



Pages of closely 
printed 



• • cn^'^^^P^^^^ Mane 

matter •• JU colored lil(i|Jo 

A tliorou^lil.y revised edition, includ- 
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From^All Parts of the Earth to 
CHICAGO and the 




fh'e Pocket 



Hill's Guide 

World's Fair 

500 Coliiiims of necessary Iniorniatlon for 

the Tourist and World's Fair Visitor. 
33 one-page Maps locating -places at a 

glance. 
413 original Illustrations, speaking 

volumes. 
A Finding L.ist of all notable things to 

be seen at the Fair. 

" How to See, What to See, 
and Whne to See It." 

Places in the Fair and the City of Chicago 
made as familiar to a visitor as they are 
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very doors of the World's Fair — a special map showing all 
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"How to Get the Most for every Dollar Spent.'' 
Price:— In paper covers. 25c. In limp cloth, round corners, 50c. 
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